科學的重要性在於改善物質生活及拓廣知識疆界。傳統的科學只由少數專家來進行，近年來通訊成本日益降低，進而興起由科學家主導但開放群眾參與及揭露中間投入的群眾科學。而鮮少研究探討群眾科學的本質與內涵，本文以分類的方式，將其依整合程度及任務難度兩個構面分類為獅子型、猴子型、狼型、蜜蜂型四個不同類型的群眾科學，並據以分別討論各自的運作方式與管理挑戰。

The significance of science lies in its ability to improve material life, and expand knowledge boundaries. As traditional science is solely carried out by a handul of experts, over the years, the decreasing communication costs led to the rise of a crowd science that is scientist-led, with public participation and disclosure of intermediate inputs. As studies rarely investigate the meaning and content of crowd science, this paper makes use of classification to classify firstly, based on its degree of integration, and secondly, based on the difficulty of the tasks. There are four types of crowd science, namely, "Lion" type, "Monkey" type, "Wolf" type, and "Bee" type which we will discuss according to their modes of operation, and management challenges.

摘要
壹、 導論 1
貳、 文獻回顧 3
一、 科學的重要性 3
二、 傳統科學 5
三、 群眾科學 6
參、 研究方法 9
一、 次級資料分析 9
二、 行動研究 10
三、 訪談法 11
肆、 群眾科學的特性與分類構面 13
一、 任務難度 vs. 整合程度 13
二、 獅子型群眾科學計畫 16
三、 以博學者計畫為例 19
四、 猴子型群眾科學計畫 22
五、 以臺灣繁殖鳥類大調查為例 24
六、 狼型群眾科學計畫 32
七、 以Foldit為例 34
八、 蜜蜂型群眾科學計畫 41
九、 以臺灣路殺社為例 43
伍、 討論與結論 49
一、 理論與實務意涵 49
二、 研究限制與未來研究方向 52
參考文獻 53

路殺社，2015，路殺資料統計，https://roadkill.tw/viz/stats，搜尋日期：2016年5月21日。
Atweh, B., Kemmis, S., and Weeks, P. 2002. Action Research in Practice: Partnership for Social Justice in Education. New York, NY: Routledge.
Baldwin, C. Y., and Clark, K. B. 2006. The architecture of participation: Does code architecture mitigate free riding in the open source development model?. Management Science, 52(7), 1116-1127.
Benz, S., Miller-Rushing, A., Domroese, M., Ballard, H., Bonney, R., DeFalco, T., Newman, S., Shirk, J., and Young, A. 2013. Workshop 1: Conference on Public Participation in Scientific Research 2012: An International, Interdisciplinary Conference. The Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America, 94(1), 112-117.
Bird, T., Bates, A., Lefcheck, J., Hill, N., Thomson, R., Edgar, G., Stuart-Smith, R., Wotherspoon, S., Krkosek, M., Stuart-Smith, J., Pecl, G., Barrett, N., and Frusher, S. 2014. Statistical solutions for error and bias in global citizen science datasets. Biological Conservation, 173(1), 144-154.
Bonney, R., Cooper, C., Dickinson, J., Kelling, S., Phillips, T., Rosenberg, K., and Shirk, J. 2009. Citizen Science: A Developing Tool for Expanding Science Knowledge and Scientific Literacy. Bioscience, 59(11), 977-984.
Boyle, W., and Sigel, B. 2015. Ongoing changes in the avifauna of La Selva Biological Station, Costa Rica: Twenty-three years of Christmas Bird Counts. Biological Conservation, 188(1), 11-21.
Bugiolacchi, R., Bamford, S., Tar, P., Thacker, N., Crawford, I., Joy, K., Grindrod, P., and Lintott, C. 2016. The Moon Zoo citizen science project: Preliminary results for the Apollo 17 landing site. Icarus, 271(1), 30-48.
Chesbrough, H. W., & Garman, A. R. 2012. How open innovation can help you cope in lean times. IEEE Engineering Management Review, 40(3), 58.
Cohen, J. 1998. Research Funding: Scientists Who Fund Themselves. Science, 279(5348), 178-181.
Cohen, J. 2008. Citizen Science: Can Volunteers Do Real Research?. Bioscience, 58(3), 192-197.
Cooper, S., Khatib, F., Treuille, A., Barbero, J., Lee, J., Beenen, M., Leaver-Fay, A., Baker, D., Popović, Z., and players, F. 2010. Predicting protein structures with a multiplayer online game. Nature, 466(7307), 756-760.
Corbin, J., and Morse, J. M. 2003. The unstructured interactive interview: Issues of reciprocity and risks when dealing with sensitive topics. Qualitative inquiry, 9(3), 335-354.
Cranshaw, J., and Kittur, A. 2011. The Polymath Project: Lessons from a Successful Online Collaboration in Mathematics. Special Interest Group on Computer-Human Interaction Conference, Vancouver, Canada.
Dick, M., Baggott, S., and Quickenden, K. 2013. Matthew Boulton: Enterprising Industrialist of the Enlightenment (Science, Technology, and Culture, 1700-1945). Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Group.
Dickinson, J. L., Shirk, J., Bonter, D., Bonney, R., Crain, R. L., Martin, J., Phillips, T., and Purcell, K. 2012. The current state of citizen science as a tool for ecological research and public engagement. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 10(1), 291-297.
Droege, S. 2007. Just because you paid them doesn’t mean their data are better. Citizen Science Toolkit Conference, Ithaca, NY.
Dubach, J., Patterson, B., Briggs, M., Venzke, K., Flamand, J., Stander, P., Scheepers, L., and Kays, R. 2005. Molecular genetic variation across the southern and eastern geographic ranges of the African lion, Panthera leo. Conservation Genetics, 6(1), 15-24.
Fold.it. 2016. Top Soloists. https://fold.it/portal/players/s_all. Accessed April. 15, 2016.
Fayol, H. 1949. General and Industrial Management. London, UK: Pitman.
Felin, T., and Zenger, T. R. 2014. Closed or open innovation? Problem solving and the governance choice. Research Policy, 43(5), 914-925.
Field, R., Hawkins, B., Cornell, H., Currie, D., Diniz-Filho, J., Guégan, J., Kaufman, D., Kerr, J., Mittelbach, G., Oberdorff, T., O’Brien, E., and Turner, J. 2009. Spatial species-richness gradients across scales: a meta-analysis. Journal of Biogeography, 36(1), 132-147.
Fink, D., and Hochachka, W. 2009. Gaussian Semiparametric Analysis Using Hierarchical Predictive Models. In Thomson, David L., Cooch, Evan G., Conroy, Michael J. (Eds.), Modeling Demographic Processes in Marked Populations: 1011-1035. New York, NY: Springer.
Fleming, L. 2001. Recombinant Uncertainty in Technological Search. Management Science, 47(1), 117-132.
Franzoni, C., and Sauermann, H. 2014. Crowd science: The organization of scientific research in open collaborative projects. Research Policy, 43(1), 1-20.
Gaston, K. 2000. Global patterns in biodiversity. Nature, 405(6783), 220-227.
Goodchild, M. 2007. Citizens as sensors: the world of volunteered geography. Geojournal, 69(4), 211-221.
Groover, M. 2007. Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Gura, T. 2013. Citizen science: Amateur experts. Nature, 496(7444), 259-261.
Hawkins, M., and Rezazade, M. H. 2012. Knowledge boundary spanning process: synthesizing four spanning mechanisms. Management Decision, 50(10), 1800-1815.
Henderson, S. 2012. Citizen science comes of age. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 10(6), 283-283.
Herzberg, F. 1959. The Motivation to Work. New York, NY: Wiley.
Holter, I. M., and Schwartz‐Barcott, D. 1993. Action research: what is it? How has it been used and how can it be used in nursing?. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 18(2), 298-304.
Iacobucci, D. and Calder, B. 2003. Kellogg on Integrated Marketing. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Chaniotis, A. (2010). IAS The Institute Letter Fall 2010. https://www.ias.edu/files/pdfs/letter-2010-fall.pdf. Accessed June. 7, 2016.
Irwin, A. 1995. Citizen Science: A Study of People, Expertise and Sustainable Development Environment and Society. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
Kotler, P. and Keller, K. 2006. Marketing Management. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Kramer, R. M. 1981. Voluntary Agencies in the Welfare State. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Kyba, C., Wagner, J., Kuechly, H., Walker, C., Elvidge, C., Falchi, F., Ruhtz, T., Fischer, J., and Hölker, F. 2013. Citizen Science Provides Valuable Data for Monitoring Global Night Sky Luminance. Scientific Reports, 3(1), 1835-1854.
Laudan, L. 1984. Science and Values. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Lewenstein, B. 2004. What Does Citizen Science Accomplish?. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Lewin, K. (1946). Action research and minority problems. Journal of Social Issues, 2(4), 34-46.
Lintott, C., Schawinski, K., Slosar, A., Land, K., Bamford, S., Thomas, D., Raddick, M., Nichol, R., Szalay, A., Andreescu, D., Murray, P., and Vandenberg, J. 2008. Galaxy Zoo: morphologies derived from visual inspection of galaxies from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey . Monthly Notices, 389(3), 1179-1189.
McKay, D. and Scott, H. 1983. The Rise of the Great Powers: 1648-1815. London, UK: Longman.
McKernan, J. 2013. Curriculum Action Research: A Handbook of Methods and Resources for the Reflective Practitioner. New York, NY: Routledge.
Merton, R. K. 1973. The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Miller-Rushing, A., Primack, R., and Bonney, R. 2012. The history of public participation in ecological research. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 10, 285-290.
Moran, M. 2006. Technology: Law of Accelerating Returns. Journal of Endourology, 20(6), 375-382.
Morello-Frosch, R., Pastor Jr, M., Sadd, J. L., Porras, C., and Prichard, M. 2005. Citizens, Science, and Data Judo. Methods in Community-Based Participatory Research for Health, 371-392.
Newman, G., Wiggins, A., Crall, A., Graham, E., Newman, S.,and Crowston, K . 2012. The future of citizen science: emerging technologies and shifting paradigms. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 10, 298-304.
Newton, I., Streater, J., and Smith, S. 1687. Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. London, UK: Jussu Societatis Regiae.
Nielsen, M. 2012. Reinventing Discovery. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Noffke, S. E., and Stevenson, R. B. 1995. Educational Action Research: Becoming Practically Critical. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Nonaka, I., and Takeuchi, H. 1995. The Knowledge-Creating Company. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Pease, A., and Martin, U. 2012. Seventy four minutes of mathematics: An analysis of the third Mini-Polymath project. Symposium on Mathematical Practice and Cognition II, Birmingham, UK.
Perrow, C., and Woodward, J. 1967. Industrial Organization: Theory and Practice. American Sociological Review, 32(2), 313-315.
Popper, K. 1962. Conjectures and Refutations. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Raddick, M., Bracey, G., Gay, P., Lintott, C., Murray, P., Schawinski, K., Szalay, A., and Vandenberg, J. 2010. Galaxy Zoo: Exploring the Motivations of Citizen Science Volunteers. Astronomy Education Review, 9(1), 1-18.
Robbins, S.J., Antonenko, I., Kirchoff, M.R., Chapman, C.R., Fassett, C.I., Herrick, R.R., Singer, K., Zanetti, M., Lehan, C., Huang, D., and Gay, P.L. 2014. The variability of crater identification among expert and community crater analysts. Icarus, 234, 109-131.
Rogers, R., and Luckenbill, D. 1927. Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia. The American Historical Review, 32(4), 835-836.
Scott, P. 1995. The Meanings of Mass Higher Education. London, UK: McGraw-Hill Education.
Seale, C. 2004. Qualitative Research Practice. London, UK: Sage.
Seeman, M. 1959. On The Meaning of Alienation. American Sociological Review, 24(6), 783-791.
Segen, J. 1992. The Dictionary of Modern Medicine. Carnforth, Lancs, London, UK: Parthenon Publishing Group.
Siex, K. S., and Struhsaker, T. T. 1999. Colobus monkeys and coconuts: A study of perceived human-wildlife conflicts. Journal of Applied Ecology 36 (6), 1009.
Silvertown, J. 2009. A new dawn for citizen science. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 24(9), 467-471.
Simmel, G., and Wolff, K. 1964. The sociology of Georg Simmel. New York, NY: Free Press of Glencoe.
Simon, H. 1996. Hidden Champions. Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press.
Simon, H. A. 1962. The Architecture of Complexity. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 106(6), 467-482.
Simon, H. A. 1973. The Structure of Ill Structured Problems. Artificial intelligence, 4(3-4), 181-201.
Skinner, B. F. 1965. Science and Human Behavior. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
Stevenson, R. D., and Morris, R. A. 2002. Community Science for Biodiversity Monitoring. Annual National Conference on Digital Government Research, New York, NY.
Kalai, G. 2011. Polymath discussion at IAS. https://polymathprojects.org/2011/03/09/polymath-discussion-at-ias/. Accessed June. 7, 2016.
Guilford, R. 1949. Studies in Social Psychology in World War II. Social Service Review, 23(4), 525-527.
Sullivan, B., Wood, C., Iliff, M., Bonney, R., Fink, D. and Kelling, S. 2009. eBird: A citizen-based bird observation network in the biological sciences. Biological Conservation, 142(10), 2282-2292.
Thompson, J. 2003. Organizations in Action. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Tobias, S. 1994. Interest, Prior Knowledge, and Learning. Review of Educational Research, 64(1), 37-54.
Tregidgo, D., West, S., and Ashmore, M. 2013. Can citizen science produce good science? Testing the OPAL Air Survey methodology, using lichens as indicators of nitrogenous pollution. Environmental Pollution, 182, 448-451.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 1995. Policy Paper for Change and Development in Higher Education. Paris, France: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization.
Uzzi, B. and Spiro, J. 2005. Collaboration and Creativity: The Small World Problem1. American Journal of Sociology, 111(2), 447-504.
Vickers, J. 1973. Ellen Meiksins Wood, Mind and Politics: An Approach to the Meaning of Liberal and Socialist Individualism. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 6(3), 541-542.
Von Krogh, G., Spaeth, S., and Lakhani, K. R. 2003. Community, joining, and specialization in open source software innovation: a case study. Research Policy, 32(7), 1217-1241.
Wiggins, A., and Crowston, K. 2011. From Conservation to Crowdsourcing: A Typology of Citizen Science. Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Hawaii, HI.
Wiggins, A., Newman, G., Stevenson, R. D., and Crowston, K. 2011. Mechanisms for data quality and validation in citizen science. IEEE Seventh International Conference, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
Woodward, J. 1958. Management and Technology. London, UK: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 4-30
Young, J. R. 2010. Crowd science reaches new heights. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 1(1), 2-7.
Zeller, R. A., Neal, A. G., and Groat, H. T. 1980. On the reliability and stability of alienation measures: a longitudinal analysis. Social Forces, 58(4), 1195-1204.