本論文提出了一種利用創新感測運算法減少感測單元內電容器，進而改良製成的電容式三維解析接觸感測器。本論文提出的兩種創新感測器模型可分別達到現有模型的至少兩倍及四倍三維解析度，接觸式感測器可分別測量三軸所受應力並全面運算施加在感測器表面360度的剪應力。本論文不僅提出感測運算法，感測元件的電極形狀亦經過研究並改良以取得有對稱x-y平面的三維解析度。除此之外，感測器使用彈性材料製成以模擬機器人觸碰感測時使用的仿真膚元件。為得知感測器的機械表現及電性反應，本研究並另外平行架設一模擬模形以測試多種負載下的表現。機械組成和製造產生的缺陷等眾多重要因素造成的角度運算誤差，已依循實驗脈絡歸納並整理，以期能製造出更優良並具有實現性的接觸感測器。

An improved spatial resolution capacitive tactile sensor is achieved in this work by employing a novel detection algorithm, which reduces the uses of number of capacitors in one sensing unit. Two novel models are proposed and realized to at least double and quadruple the current spatial resolution. The tactile sensor could detect three-axial force and compute the complete 360° shear force angle that applied on the upper sensor surface. Not only the detection algorithm has been developed, the shape of the electrodes of the sensing elements has also been modified and studied to obtain a symmetry x-y spatial resolution. Furthermore, the sensor is fabricated using elastic materials to provide a skin-like device on robot’s tactile perception. A simulation model is built in parallel to understand the device mechanical behaviors and electrical responses under various loads. The angle calculation error by several important parameters such as mechanical properties and fabrication defect has also been comprehensively identified and discussed to produce a better yet realizable tactile sensor.

Abstract i
Acknowledgment ii
Table of Contents iii
List of Figures v
List of Tables x
List of Abbreviation xi
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Backgrounds and Motivations 1
1.2 Sensing 1
1.2.1 Proximity Sensors 1
1.2.2 Contact Sensors 3
1.2.3 3-D Detections 6
1.2.4 Spatial Resolution 8
1.3 Process 8
1.3.1 Conventional Photolithography 8
1.3.2 Direct Current (DC) Sputtering 9
Chapter 2 Design and Simulation 10
2.1 Design and Material 10
2.1.1 Planar Arrangement 10
2.1.2 Stacked Arrangement 14
2.2 Operation principle 15
2.2.1 Planar Design 15
2.2.2 Stacked design 27
Chapter 3 Material and Fabrication 32
3.1 Fabrication 32
Chapter 4 Measurement and Results 38
4.1 Experiment setup 38
4.2 Experiment results 40
4.2.1 Elastomer Tensile Test (ASTM D412-15a) 40
4.2.2 Normal force 41
4.2.3 Shear force 42
4.2.4 The angle calculation 43
4.3 Material Properties 44
4.3.1 Relative permittivity (εr) 44
4.3.2 Young’s Modulus (E) and Stiffness (k) 45
4.3.3 Hardness (Durometer) 49
4.3.4 Conversion between hardness and Young’s modulus 49
4.3.5 Poisson’s Ratio (ν) 51
4.3.6 Thermal Expansion 52
4.3.7 Thermal Dependence of Solid – State Material Properties 52
4.4 Aspect Ratio (AR) 54
Chapter 5 Conclusion 57
5.1 Planar Design 57
5.2 Stacked Design 58
Reference 59
List of Publication 64

[1] F. Šimon, H. Michal and P. Tomáš, "Nao Robot Localization and Navigation Using Fusion of Odometry and Visual Sensor Data," in Intelligent Robotics and Applications, Berlin Heidelberg, Springer-Verlag, 2012, pp. 427-438.
[2] M. I. Z. Juan, J. M. T. Alejandro, D. G. S. Ángel, E. L. D. Jorge, E. R. C. Luis and A. S. A. Wilson, "Development of a system based on 3D vision, interactive virtual environments, ergonometric signals and a humanoid for stroke rehabilitation," Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, vol. 112, no. 2, pp. 239-249, November 2013.
[3] K. F., "Advanced Binaural Sound Localization in 3-D for Humanoid Robots," IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, vol. 63, no. 9, pp. 2098-2107, September 2014.
[4] M. M., R. F., T. M.S., B. L. and S. G., "Saliency based sensor fusion of broadband sound localizer for humanoids," in 2015 IEEE International Conference on Multisensor Fusion and Integration for Intelligent Systems (MFI), San Diego, 14-16 Sept. 2015.
[5] P. Alberto, M. Marco, N. Lorenzo, N. Francesco, S. Alexander, T. Nikos, S. V. José, B. Francesco, S. Giulio and M. Giorgio, "The Design of the iCub Humanoid Robot," International Journal of Humanoid Robotics, vol. 9, no. 4, p. 24, December 2012.
[6] M. Philipp and C. Gordon, "Humanoid Multimodal Tactile-Sensing Modules," IEEE Transactions on Robotics, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 401-410, June 2011.
[7] J.-Y. Ruan, P.-P. Chao and W.-D. Chen, "A multi-touch interface circuit for a large-sized capacitive touch panel," in The 2010 IEEE Sensors, Kona, 1-4 Nov. 2010.
[8] J. M. Vranish, R. L. McConnell and S. Mahalingam, "“Capaciflector” collision avoidance sensors for robots," Computers & Electrical Engineering, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 173-179, 1991.
[9] M. Jagiella, S. Fericean and R. Droxler, "New Non-contacting Linear Displacement Inductive Sensors for Industrial Automation," in The 5th IEEE Conference on Sensors, Daegu, 22-25 Oct. 2006.
[10] B. Heike, G. Thomas and M. Jens, "A LTCC low-loss inductive proximity sensor for harsh environments," Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, vol. 175, pp. 28-34, March 2012.
[11] T. Satoshi and K. Teruhiko, "Tactile and Proximity Measurement by 3D Tactile Sensor Using Self-Capacitance Measurement," in Proceedings of IEEE Sensors 2015, Busan, 2015.
[12] H.-K. Lee, S.-I. Chang and E. Yoon, "Dual-Mode Capacitive Proximity Sensor for Robot Application: Implementation of Tactile and Proximity Sensing Capability on a Single Polymer Platform Using Shared Electrodes," IEEE Sensors Journal, vol. 9, pp. 1748-1755, December 2009.
[13] E.-C. Chen, C.-Y. Shih, M.-Z. Dai, H.-C. Yeh, Y.-C. Chao, H.-F. Meng, H.-W. Zan, W.-R. Liu, Y.-C. Chiu, Y.-T. Yeh, C.-J. Sun, S.-F. Horng and C.-S. Hsu, "Polymer Infrared Proximity Sensor Array," IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, vol. 58, pp. 1215-1220, April 2011.
[14] S. Fericean, A. Dorneich, R. Droxler and D. Krater, "Development of a Microwave Proximity Sensor for Industrial Applications," IEEE Sensors Journal, vol. 9, pp. 870 - 876, July 2009.
[15] S. D. Min, J. K. Kim, H. S. Shin, Y. H. Yun, C. K. Lee and J.-H. Lee, "Noncontact Respiration Rate Measurement System Using an Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor," IEEE Sensors Journal, vol. 10, pp. 1732-1739, November 2010.
[16] S. Walker, K. Loewke, M. Fischer, C. Liu and J. Salisbury, "An Optical Fiber Proximity Sensor for Haptic Exploration," in The 2007 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Roma, 10-14 April 2007.
[17] C. Treutler, "Magnetic sensors for automotive applications," Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, vol. 91, no. 1-2, pp. 2-6, 5 June 2001.
[18] M. Jagiella, S. Fericean and A. Dorneich, "Progress and Recent Realizations of Miniaturized Inductive Proximity Sensors for Automation," IEEE Sensors Journal, vol. 6, pp. 1734-1741, December 2006.
[19] T. Kasahara, M. Mizushima, H. Shinohara, T. Obata, T. Futakuchi, S. Shoji and J. Mizuno, "Simple and Low-Cost Fabrication of Flexible Capacitive Tactile Sensors," Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 50, pp. 1-5, January 2011.
[20] E. Guglielmelli, V. Genovese, P. Dario and G. Morana, "Avoiding obstacles by using a proximity US/IR sensitive skin," in Proceedings of the 1993 IEEE/RSJ International Conference, Yokohama, 26-30 Jul 1993.
[21] B. George, H. Zangl, T. Bretterklieber and G. Brasseur, "A Combined Inductive–Capacitive Proximity Sensor for Seat Occupancy Detection," IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, vol. 59, no. 5, pp. 1463-1470, May 2010.
[22] M. Norgia and C. Svelto, "RF-Capacitive Proximity Sensor for Safety Applications," in IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference Proceedings, Warsaw, 1-3 May 2007.
[23] A. Sabatini, V. Genovese, E. Guglielmelli, A. Mantuano, G. Ratti and P. Dario, "A low-cost, composite sensor array combining ultrasonic and infrared proximity sensors," in The 1995 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Pittsburgh, 5-9 Aug 1995.
[24] C. Chen, L. Fei, L. Jun and W. Yanzhang, "Investigation and Optimization of the Performance of an Air-Coil Sensor with a Differential Structure Suited to Helicopter TEM Exploration," Sensors, vol. 15, no. 9, pp. 23325-23340, September 2015.
[25] H. Gatzen, E. Andreeva and H. Iswahjudi, "Eddy-current microsensor based on thin-film technology," IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 38, no. 5, pp. 3368-3370, September 2002.
[26] A. Mahdi, L. Panina and D. Mapps, "Some new horizons in magnetic sensing: high-Tc SQUIDs, GMR and GMI materials," Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, vol. 105, no. 3, pp. 271-285, 15 August 2003.
[27] K. B. Larry, "Introduction," in Capacitive Sensors: Design and Applications, New York, Wiley-IEEE Press, 1996, pp. 1-2.
[28] A. S. Turk, K. A. Hocaoglu and A. A. Vertiy, "Electromagnetic Induction," in Subsurface Sensing, New Jersey, John Wiley & Sons, 2011, p. 178.
[29] X. Li, S. Larson, A. Zyuzin and A. Mamishev, "Design principles for multichannel fringing electric field sensors," IEEE Sensors Journal, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 434-440, April 2006.
[30] T.-H. Hwang, W.-H. Cui, I.-S. Yang and O.-K. Kwon, "A highly area-efficient controller for capacitive touch screen panel systems," IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics, vol. 56, no. 2, pp. 1115-1122, May 2010.
[31] C.-T. Ko, S.-H. Tseng and M.-C. Lu, "A CMOS Micromachined Capacitive Tactile Sensor With High-Frequency Output," Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 1708-1714, December 2006.
[32] S. G. Pedro, M. P. R. Pedro, P. Octavian and M. D. P. José, "Tactile sensors for robotic applications," Measurement, vol. 46, pp. 1257-1271, November 2013.
[33] N. Kei, T. Ryoma, E. Takaaki, O. Yasutaka and T. Ippei, "Active Bioacoustic Measurement for Human-to-Human Skin Contact Area Detection," in Proceeding of IEEE SENSORS 2015, Busan, 2015.
[34] S. Chuang, T. Chen, Y. Chung, R. Chen and C. Lo, "Asymmetric Fan-Shape-Electrode for High-Angle-Detection-Accuracy Tactile Sensor," in The 28th IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS), Estoril, Jan. 18-22, 2015.
[35] G. Cannata, M. Maggiali, G. Metta and G. Sandini, "An Embedded Artificial Skin for Humanoid Robots," in Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Multisensor Fusion and Integration for Intelligent Systems, Seoul, August 20-22, 2008.
[36] S. Pyo, J. Lee, M. Kim, T. Chung, Y. Oh, S. Lim, J. Park and J. Kim, "Development of a flexible three-axis tactile sensor based on screen-printed carbon nanotube-polymer composite," Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering, vol. 24, 2014.
[37] K. B. Larry, "Capacitive sensor basics," in Capacitive Sensors: Design and Applications, New York, Wiley-IEEE Press, 1996, pp. 37-47.
[38] H. Yousef, M. Boukallel and K. Althoefer, "Tactile sensing for dexterous in-hand manipulation in robotics—A review," Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, vol. 167, no. 2, pp. 171-187, June 2011.
[39] H.-K. Kim, S. Lee and K.-S. Yun, "Capacitive tactile sensor array for touch screen application," Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, vol. 165, no. 1, pp. 2-7, January 2011.
[40] H.-K. Lee, J. Chung, S.-I. Chang and E. Yoon, "Normal and Shear Force Measurement Using a Flexible Polymer Tactile Sensor With Embedded Multiple Capacitors," Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 934-942, August 2008.
[41] Y.-C. Chung, R. Chen and C.-Y. Lo, "Angled Force Detection by Shifted-Capacitor Tactile Sensor," Hsinchu, 2013.
[42] H.-K. Lee, J. Chung, S.-I. Chang and E. Yoon, "Real-time measurement of the three-axis contact force distribution using a flexible capacitive polymer tactile sensor," Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering, vol. 21, no. 3, p. 035010, February 2011.
[43] S. Chuang, R. Chen and C. Lo, "Error Analysis and Improvement of Electrode Design for Shifted-Capacitor Tactile Sensors," Hsinchu, 2014.
[44] J. E. Mark, Physical Properties of Polymers Handbook, 2nd ed., New York: Springer-Verlag, 2007.
[45] W. Beach, C. Lee and D. Bassett, Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Engineering, New york: Wiley, 1985.
[46] P. S. Ho, J. Leu and W. W. Lee, Low Dielectric Constant Materials for IC Applications, 1st ed., Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2003.
[47] Y. Thomas, "Lecture XIII - On Passive Strength and Friction," in A course of lectures on natural philosophy and the mechanical arts, London, 1845, pp. 1773-1829.
[48] C. François, "Polymers and Elastomers," in Materials Handbook - A Concise Desktop Reference, 2nd ed., London, Springer-Verlag, 2008, pp. 691-750.
[49] I. D. Johnston, D. K. McCluskey, C. K. L. Tan and M. C. Tracey, "Mechanical characterization of bulk Sylgard 184 for microfluidics and microengineering," Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering, vol. 24, no. 3, p. 035017, February 2014.
[50] Z. Zhou, Z. Wang and L. Lin, Microsystems and Nanotechnology, 1st ed., Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2012.
[51] N. Hong-seok, M. Kyoung-Sik, A. Cannon, P. J. Hesketh and C. Wong, "Wafer bonding using microwave heating of parylene for MEMS packaging," in Proceedings of The 54th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, 1-4 June 2004.
[52] U. Jonsson, O. Lindahl and B. Andersson, "Modeling the high-frequency complex modulus of silicone rubber using standing lamb waves and an inverse finite element method," IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control, vol. 61, no. 12, pp. 2106 - 2120, December 2014.
[53] R. F. Landel and L. E. Nielsen, Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Composites, 2nd ed., CRC Press, 1993.
[54] J. J. Aklonis, "Mechanical properties of polymers," Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 58, no. 11, pp. 892-897, November 1981.
[55] M. Morton, Rubber Technology, 3rd ed., Netherlands: Springer, 1999, p. 154.
[56] D. V. Krevelen, "Properties of Polymers," in Chapter 13 - Mechanical Properties of Solid Polymers, 4th ed., Amsterdam, Elsevier, 2009, pp. 383-503.
[57] A. V. Tobolsky, Properties and Structure of Polymers, 2nd ed., New York: Wiley, 1962.
[58] J. E. Mark, "Rubber Elasticity," Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 58, no. 11, pp. 898-903, 1981.
[59] A. Rudin, "Chapter 5 - Step-Growth Polymerizations," in The Elements of Polymer Science & Engineering, 2nd ed., San Diego, Academic Press, 1999, pp. 155-188.
[60] "ASTM D2240 - 05 Standard Test Method for Rubber Property—Durometer Hardness," Annual Book of ASTM Standards: Rubber, Natural and Synthetic -- General Test Methods; Carbon Black, vol. 09.01, p. 13, 2010.
[61] E. Gutierrez and A. Groisman, "Measurements of Elastic Moduli of Silicone Gel Substrates with a Microfluidic Device," PLoS ONE, vol. 6, no. 9, pp. 1-8, September 2011.
[62] R. Seghir and S. Arscott, "Extended PDMS stiffness range for flexible systems," Sensors and Actuators A: Physical, vol. 230, pp. 33-39, July 2015.
[63] D. Fuard, T. Tzvetkova-Chevolleau, S. Decossas, P. Tracqui and P. Schiavone, "Optimization of Poly-Di-Methyl-Siloxane (PDMS) substrates for studying cellular adhesion and motility," Microelectronic Engineering, vol. 85, no. 5-6, pp. 1289-1293, May 2008.
[64] K. Khanafer, A. Duprey, M. Schlicht and R. Berguer, "Effects of strain rate, mixing ratio, and stress–strain definition on the mechanical behavior of the polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) material as related to its biological applications," Biomedical Microdevices, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 503-508, December 2008.
[65] "Sylgard® 184 Silicone Elastomer," Dow Corning Corporation, 2 April 2014. [Online]. Available: http://www.dowcorning.com. [Accessed 9 December 2015].
[66] J. Kunz and M. Studer, "Determining The Modulus of Elasticity in Compression via The Shore A Hardness," Kunststoffe , vol. 6, pp. 92-94, 2006.
[67] A. W. Mix and A. J. Giacomin, "Standardized Polymer Durometry," Journal of Testing and Evaluation, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 1-10, March 2011.
[68] J. E. Mark, B. Erman and F. R. Eirich, "Chapter 1: Rubber Elasticity Basic Concepts and Behavior," in Science and Technology of Rubber, 3rd ed., Burlington, Academic Press, 2005, pp. 1-27.
[69] H. J. Qi, K. Joyce and M. C. Boyce, "Durometer Hardness and the Stress-Strain Behavior of Elastomeric Materials," Rubber Chemistry and Technology:, vol. 76, no. 2, pp. 419-435, May 2003.
[70] British Standard, B.S. 903, Part A, 1957.
[71] L. W. McKeen, "Film-Properties of Plastics and Elastomers," in Introduction to the Properties of Plastic and Elastomer Films, Boston, William Andrew Publishing, 2012, pp. 19-55.
[72] R. Greiner and F. R. Schwarzl, "Thermal contraction and volume relaxation of amorphous polymers," Rheologica Acta, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 378-395, July 1984.
[73] E. E. Havinga, "The Temperature Dependence of Dielectric Constants," Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids, vol. 18, no. 2-3, pp. 253-255, February 1961.