海王星外天體是太陽系處於動態和碰撞的時期時行星形成的見證者。亞公里級海王星外天體的大小總數特徵可能會攜帶著關於行星起源的一些重要線 索。然而,我們對海王星外天體的知識是遠遠不夠的,特別是對於那些亞公里 級海王星外天體,因為只有非常稀少的觀測證據。目前的科技只能直接觀測到 直徑大於25公里的海王星外天體。對於不能被直接觀察到的亞公里級海王星外天體,利用尋找偶發的掩星事件是一個較可行的方法。雖然一直有利用此種方法的搜索在進行,但到目前為止,只有兩個較可能為真實的掩星事件從來自哈勃太空望遠鏡的觀測數據中被同一團隊找到,分別於2009年和2012年時。

我的論文工作亦是在利用搜索偶發掩星的方法來尋找更多的亞公里大小等級的海王星外天體。我們的搜索被分成兩個主要部分:利用X射線波段觀測 數據和利用可見光波段觀測數據。我們所使用的X射線數據全部都來自RXTE (Rossi X-rays Timing Explorer, 羅西X射線計時探測器衛星)觀測,而可見光學數據 則是來自COROT(Convection Rotation and Planetary Transits, 對流旋轉和行星凌日衛星) 觀測和MIOSOTYS(Multi-object Instrument for Occultation in the SOlar system and TransitorY Systems, 多目標搜尋太陽系掩星及瞬時系統儀器)掛載於法國及西班牙的地面天文望遠鏡之觀測。

從334千秒的RXTE/PCA(Proportional Counter Array, 正比計數器陣列)觀測數據,沒有確切的海王星外天體掩星事件被我們發現。唯一可疑的非儀器相關之光度下降事件在進行繞射效應逼近分析後並不認為是源自於小型海王星外天體造成的掩星。我們繼而檢驗了偵測效率與海王星外天體大小的相依程度以便能更好地定義我們使用之偵測方法的敏感尺寸範圍,並建議了尺寸範圍從30至300公尺的亞公里級海王星外天體的大小分佈上限。因為RXTE已經除役的緣故,為 了日後能繼續從事此方面的研究我們也提出了適合在將來被更大的X射線觀測儀器所觀察的X射線源的列表。

在使用COROT觀測的搜尋工作上,我們的總觀測時間約為144408.34星時, 其訊噪比的數值以30秒計算時大於一千。我們使用了和在X射線工作上類似的偏差值方法發現了13個可能的掩星事件。這些發現提供了半徑大於四百公尺之 海王星外天體的黃道平面密度,與先前使用哈勃太空望遠鏡發現兩可疑事件的 結果比較後相符合。只考慮這13個可能事件時的冪律分佈指數為 q = 4.5 ± 0.2。我們也將這個結果與文獻上的古柏帶的演化模型及木星族彗星觀測結果進行比較。

Trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) are the witnesses of the formation of the planets during the dynamical and collisional period of our solar system. The population characteristics of sub-kilometer TNOs may carry some impor- tant clues for the origin of the planets. However, the knowledge of them is far from enough, particularly for those smaller ones, due to very few detections. Nowadays only TNOs larger than about 25 km can be directly observed. For the TNOs not able to be directly observed, searching for serendipitous stellar occultation events is a possible method. Several serendipitous searches were proceeded, but so far there are only two possible detections from archival data of Hubble Space Telescope by Schlichting et al. in 2009 and 2012.

My thesis work is going to search for more sub-kilometer sized TNOs by applying the serendipitous occultation method. The search is divided into two major parts: in X-rays and in Optical bands. The X-rays observations are all from the RXTE (Rossi X-rays Timing Explorer) satellite, and the Optical observations are from COROT (Convection Rotation and Planetary Transits) satellite and MIOSOTYS (Multi-object Instrument for Occultation in the SO- lar system and TransitorY Systems) instrument mounted on two ground-based telescopes in France and Spain.

From 334-ks RXTE/PCA, no definite TNO occultation events were found. The only suspicious non-instrumental flux-drop event was not considered to be resulted from the small TNO occultation after analyzing it with the fittings of the diffraction patterns. Then we investigate the detection efficiency dependence on the TNO size to better define the sensible size range of our approach, and suggested upper limits to the TNO size distribution in the size range from 30 to 300 m. A list of X-ray sources suitable for future larger facilities to ob- serve is proposed.

The total observation time employed in our COROT work is about 144408.34
star-hours with SNR larger than 1000 computed on 30-second intervals. 13 Possible Occultation Events (POEs) were found from the deviation method. These detections gives a density in the ecliptic sky plane of TNOs larger than 400-meter radius of N(R > 400m) = 1.4^{+4.2}_{-0.7} 10^7 deg^-2. The fit of the density of TNOs with the believed break r_break = 45 km provides a power-law size distribution index q larger than 3.5. This value is consistent with the detection of 2 potential events from HST/FGS observations that found q = 3.8 +- 0.2. However, fitting the 13 POEs with the HST/FGS result alone gives a power-law size distribution index of q = 4.5 +- 0.2 in the size range between 0.2 to 2.0 km. This value is then compared with evolution models of the Kuiper Belt and the results from the recent surveys of Jupiter Family Comets (JFCs).

The MIOSOTYS instrument has been mounted as a visitor instrument on the 1.93-m telescope at Observatoire de Haute-Provence (OHP) in France since February 2010, and on the 1.23-m telescope at Calar Alto Observatory (CAHA) in Spain since November 2012. By July 2014, MIOSOTYS project has successfully carried out 19 observational runs. The total exposure time before screening is about 3.5 x 10^7 sec, which is about 9840 star hours, from 85 nights. For MIOSOTYS, we have developed an optimized observing strategy to search for TNOs. We have also developed in this project a new search algorithm of events by the method of fluctuations.

1 Introduction 23
1.1 BeyondNeptune ................................... 25
1.2 TheSizeDistributionofTNOs ........................... 27
1.2.1 TheCoagulationModel ........................... 27
1.2.2 RecentSurveys ................................ 28
1.3 SerendipitousOccultationMethod.......................... 29
1.3.1 TheDiffractionEffect ............................ 30
1.3.2 TheDetectability............................... 33
2 Search for sub-kilometer TNOs Using X-ray Observations 35
2.1 Introduction...................................... 36
2.2 RossiX-rayTimingExplorer............................. 37
2.2.1 TheAllSkyMonitor(ASM)......................... 38
2.2.2 HighEnergyX-rayTimingExperiment(HEXTE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2.3 ProportionalCounterArray(PCA)..................... 40
2.3 BackgroundtoScorpiusX-1 ............................. 41
2.4 DataReductionandAnalysis ............................ 43
2.4.1 RXTE/PCADataCollectionandReduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.4.2 RXTEFilterFile............................... 46
2.4.3 P93067 PCA Binned-Mode and Very Large Event Lightcurves . . . . . . 49
2.4.4 DetectionMethod............................... 53
2.5 SearchResult ..................................... 54
2.5.1 OnePossibleOccultationEvent ....................... 55
2.5.2 Fitting the Event E1 Lightcurve with Diffraction Patterns . . . . . . . . 57
2.5.3 TheDetectionEfficiency .......................... 58
2.5.4 Estimate the Upper Limit to the TNO Size Distribution . . . . . . . . . 60
3 Search for sub-kilometer TNOs Using Optical Observations 63
3.1 Introduction...................................... 65
3.2 COnvectionROtationandplanetaryTransits ................... 66
3.3 DataReductionandAnalysis ............................ 69
3.3.1 DataReduction................................ 69
3.3.2 Estimation of the Potential Occultation Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.3.3 EstimationoftheStellarAngularRadius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.3.4 DetectionMethod .............................. 73
3.4 SearchResult ..................................... 78
3.4.1 13PossibleOccultationEvents ....................... 78
3.4.2 SizeoftheTNOs ............................... 94
3.4.3 TNODensityintheSky ........................... 97
3.4.4 ResultsonSizeDistributionoftheTNOs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4 MIOSOTYS Project: a new instrument for probing the Kuiper Belt 103
4.1 Introduction......................................105
4.2 InstrumentsandTelescopes .............................106
4.2.1 1.93-mTelescopeatOHPinFrance ....................109
4.2.2 1.23-mTelescopeatCAHAinSpain ....................111
4.3 PrepareaMIOSOTYSObservation.........................113
4.3.1 MIOSOTYSSourceSelectionSoftware,MSSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.3.2 Anti-SolarPosition/Opposition ......................115
4.3.3 ObjectVisibility ...............................116
4.3.4 MEFOS Assignation Software Provisional Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.4 ObservationsandDataReduction..........................120
4.5 SearchforEvents...................................126
5 Conclusion and Perspective 129
5.1 Conclusion ......................................129
5.2 Perspective ......................................130
Appendices
A Publications
B MIOSOTYS Field Search Report
C MIOSOTYS’ Engineers!
D MIOSOTYS found SOMETHING!

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