本論文以句法製圖的方式分析漢語疑問詞「怎麼」句法位置。本研究主要 聚焦位於 CP 層次中的疑問詞「怎麼」。在先前的研究中，已關注到位於模態詞 之前的疑問詞有兩種功能，一種功能可作為疑問句詢問「起因」，另一種功能則 作為答覆表達「否認」(Tsai 1999, 2000, 2007, 2008)。

然而，本篇認為疑問詞「怎麼」尚有兩個新的「怎麼」功能，這兩種「怎 麼」的語力(illocutionary force)皆高於「否認」怎麼。一種「怎麼」為「強否認」， 作為表達更高的語力，因此原先否認「怎麼」於本篇重新定義為「弱否認」。另一種「怎麼」表達否定語意，作為否定句子的命題。

本論文研究四種疑問詞「怎麼」: (1)「起因」怎麼 (2) 「弱否認」怎麼 (3) 「強否認」怎麼 (4)「否定」怎麼。根據CP切割假說 (Split-CPhypothesis)(Rizzi 1997, 1999)，本篇認為疑問詞「怎麼」吻合 Tsai (1994, 1999, 2000, 2007, 2008)的 研究，可繪製出清晰的句法與語意位址定位圖。

This thesis aims to map out the syntactic distribution of the wh-phrase zenme ‘how-come’ in Chinese under the cartographic approach. In this thesis, I focus on zenme which occurs in the CP domain. It has been observed that zenme in the pre- modal position can either serve as a question to ask the cause of an event (i.e., the causal zenme), or serve as a reply to deny the occurrence of an event (i.e., the denial zenme) (Tsai 1999, 2000, 2007, 2008).

However, there are two more new usages of the wh-phrase zenme ‘how’ which both demonstrate even stronger illocutionary force than the denial zenme. One kind of zenme denotes a stronger degree of denial interpretation (hereafter the ‘strong denial or ‘s-denial’ for short) than that of denial zenme and thus the original denial zenme is henceforth viewed as the weak denial zenme (‘w-denial’ for short) in this thesis. Another usage of zenme denotes negative interpretation so as to negate the whole proposition that the sentence denotes.

In this thesis, I investigate the four wh-phrase zenme's ‘how-come’: (1) the causal zenme, (2) the w-denial zenme, (3) the s-denial zenme, and (4) the negative zenme. Following Rizzi’s (1997, 1999) Split-CP hypothesis, I propose that the wh-phrase zenme ‘how-come’ in Chinese demonstrates a transparent mapping of syntax and semantics in line with Tsai (1994, 1999, 2000, 2007, 2008).

TABLE OF CONTENTS

摘要 I
ABSTRACT II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS III
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS VII
LIST OF TABLES VIII

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1
1.1. THE BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 1
1.1. THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS 3
1.1.1. The existence of weak denial zenme ‘how-come’ (w-denial zenme) 3
1.1.2. The existence of strong denial zenme ‘how-come’ (s-denial zenme) 7
1.1.3. The existence of negative zenme ‘how-come’ 8
1.2. THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 11

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 12

2.1. THE SYNTACTIC STRUCTURE 12
2.1.1. Collins (1991) 12
2.1.2. Ochi (2004) 15
2.2. CARTOGRAPHIC APPROACH 18
2.2.1. Tsai (1994, 1999, 2000, 2007, 2008) 18
2.2.2. Tang (2015) 25
2.3. SUMMARY 33

CHAPTER 3 THE DISTINCTION OF THE FOUR WH-PHRASE ZENME’S 35

3.1. THE CONTEXT-BASED DISTINCTION 40
3.1.1. Causal zenme 40
3.1.2. Weak denial zenme (w-denial zenme) 41
3.1.3. Strong denial zenme (S-denial zenme) 43
3.1.4. Negative zenme 45
3.2. THE MODAL-BASED DISTINCTION 45
3.2.1. The Spectrum of Modality 45
3.2.2. Modal Distinction 50
3.3. THE FEATURE-BASED DISTINCTION 53
3.3.1. Disagreement 53
3.3.2. Cancellation 54
3.3.3. Actuality Entailment (AE) 56
3.3.4. Reality Status (RS) 61
3.3.5. Summary 63
3.4. THE DEFINITION OF WH-PHRASE ZENME 64
3.5. SUMMARY 65

CHAPTER 4 CARTOGRAPHY APPROACH 67

4.1. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK (THE SPLIT-CP HYPOTHESIS (RIZZI 1997, 1999)) 67
4.2. INTERROGATIVE ADVERB DAODI 70
4.3. THE EMBEDDED CONTEXT 76
4.3.1. The Verb Xiang-Zhidao ‘Want-Know’ 78
4.3.2. The Verb Renwei ‘Think’ 80
4.3.1. The Factive Verb Faxian ‘Find-Out’ 82
4.4. NPI LICENSING 87
4.5. TOPICALIZATION 91
4.6. PROJECTION OF THE FOUR ZENME 96
4.6.1. Subject In-Between Zenme and Modal 97
4.6.2. Pre-Subject Modal Test 100
4.7. INTERVENTION EFFECT 107
4.8. SUMMARY 116

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND FURTHER REMARKS 119

5.1. CONCLUSION 119
5.2. FURTHER REMARKS 121
REFERENCES 128

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