本研究旨在深入研究發展性語言障礙兒童（DLD）與一般發展兒童（TD）在程序學習任務中的表現，同時探討程序學習和語言能力之間的相互影響，以驗證程序學習缺陷理論（PDH）。本研究招募了30名8至12歲的習華語兒童，分為DLD組（15名）和TD組（15名），兩組受試者皆進行繩結任務、畢保德詞彙測驗和句子理解測驗。結果顯示，在繩結任務中，受試者操作的正確率有效區辨了兩組兒童的表現，且DLD兒童的動作程序學習表現顯著低於TD組兒童。進一步以相關性分析發現，程序學習能力與詞彙能力和句子理解能力呈現相關性。然而，以階層迴歸分析發現，在考慮詞彙能力後，句子理解能力對程序學習無顯著貢獻。綜合而言，本研究部份支持PDH理論，研究結果發現習華語DLD兒童在程序學習上存在缺陷，同時也強調了習華語兒童的動作程序學習與詞彙能力密切相關。這一結果豐富了對習華語DLD兒童的全面理解，為目前的研究領域提供實證性的證據。

This study aims to delve into the performance of children with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) compared to typically developing children (TD) in procedural learning tasks. Concurrently, it explores the reciprocal influence between procedural learning and language abilities to validate the Procedural Deficit Hypothesis (PDH). The research recruited 30 Mandarin-speaking children aged 8 to 12, divided into a DLD group (15 participants) and a TD group (15 participants). Both groups underwent a Rope Knot Task, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, and a Sentence Comprehension Test. The results revealed that the accuracy in the Rope Knot Task effectively distinguished the performance of the two groups, with DLD children demonstrating significantly lower procedural learning performance than TD children. Further correlation analysis indicated a relationship between procedural learning ability and vocabulary and sentence comprehension abilities. However, hierarchical regression analysis, when considering vocabulary ability, found that sentence comprehension had no significant contribution to procedural learning. In conclusion, this study partially supports the PDH, revealing procedural learning deficits in Mandarin-speaking children with DLD. It emphasizes the close association between procedural learning and vocabulary abilities in Mandarin-speaking children, enriching our comprehensive understanding and providing empirical evidence for the current research field.

摘要 i
Abstract ii
表目錄 v
圖目錄 vi
第一章　緒論 1
第一節　研究背景與動機 1
第二節　研究目的 6
第二章　文獻探討 7
第一節 發展性語言障礙的語言特徵 7
第二節 程序學習 12
第三節 程序學習評估工具 18
第四節 發展性語言障礙兒童的程序學習表現 22
第五節 研究問題 32
第三章　研究方法 34
第一節 研究對象 34
第二節 研究架構 36
第三節 研究工具 38
第四節 施測流程 43
第五節 資料處理與分析 44
第四章　研究結果 46
第一節 兩組兒童於繩結任務之施測結果 46
第二節 繩結任務和語言能力的相關性 54
第三節 繩結任務和語言能力的階層迴歸分析 58
第五章　討論與建議 63
第一節 研究結果與討論 63
第二節 研究限制與建議 69
參考文獻 72

一、 中文部分
謝瑜庭（2021）。習華語發展性語言障礙兒童工作記憶與表達性句法。〔未出版之碩士論文〕。國立清華大學。
教育部（2013）。身心障礙及資賦優異學生鑑定辦法。取自：https://law.moj.gov.tw/LawClass/LawAll.aspx?pcode=H0080065
賴曉嬋、王秋鈴（2017）。有效鑑別國小二年級語言障礙兒童和典型發展兒童的敘事指標。特殊教育研究學刊， 42(3)，33-61。

二、 英文部分
Alexander, G. E., DeLong, M. R., & Strick, P. L. (1986). Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 9(1), 357-381.
Bauer, P. J. (2008). Toward a neuro‐developmental account of the development of declarative memory. Developmental Psychobiology: The Journal of the International Society for Developmental Psychobiology, 50(1), 19-31.
Bishop, D. V. (2014). Ten questions about terminology for children with unexplained language problems. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 49(4), 381-415.
Bishop, D. V. M. (2005). Test for reception of grammar—electronic. London: Psychological Corporation.
Bishop, D. V., & Garsell, M. (2003). Test for reception of grammar: Version 2: TROG-2 manual.
Bishop, D. V., Snowling, M. J., Thompson, P. A., & Greenhalgh, T. (2017). CATALISE: A multinational and multidisciplinary Delphi consensus study of problems with language development. Phase 2. Terminology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58(10), 1068-1080.
Brownell, R. (2000b). Receptive One-word Picture Vocabulary Test: ROWPVT. Academic Therapy Publications.
Brownell, R. (Ed.). (2000a). Expressive one-word picture vocabulary test: Manual. Academic Therapy Publications.
Caplan, D., Alpert, N., & Waters, G. (1998). Effects of syntactic structure and propositional number on patterns of regional cerebral blood flow. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10(4), 541-552.
Chen, L., & Durrleman, S. (2022). Comprehension of Mandarin Aspect Markers by Preschool Children With and Without Developmental Language Disorder. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 839951.
Clark, M. M., & Plante, E. (1998). Morphology of the inferior frontal gyrus in developmentally language-disordered adults. Brain and Language, 61(2), 288-303.
Cohen, M. (1997). Children's memory scale. Psychological Corporation.
Cohen, M. (1999). Children’s Memory Scale (CMS). San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.
Cohen, M., Campbell, R., & Yaghmai, F. (1989). Neuropathological abnormalities in developmental dysphasia. Annals of Neurology: Official Journal of the American Neurological Association and the Child Neurology Society, 25(6), 567-570.
Conti‐Ramsden, G., Botting, N., & Faragher, B. (2001). Psycholinguistic markers for specific language impairment (SLI). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(6), 741-748.
Conti‐Ramsden, G., Durkin, K., Toseeb, U., Botting, N., & Pickles, A. (2018). Education and employment outcomes of young adults with a history of developmental language disorder. International journal of language & communication disorders, 53(2), 237-255.
Conway, C. M., Arciuli, J., Lum, J. A., & Ullman, M. T. (2019). Seeing problems that may not exist: A reply to West et al.’s (2018) questioning of the procedural deficit hypothesis. Developmental Science, 22(4), e12814.
Damasio, H., Grabowski, T. J., Tranel, D., Hichwa, R. D., & Damasio, A. R. (1996). A neural basis for lexical retrieval. Nature, 380(6574), 499-505.
Denays, R., Tondeur, M., Foulon, M., Verstraeten, F., Ham, H., Piepsz, A., & Noël, P. (1989). Regional brain blood flow in congenital dysphasia: Studies with technetium-99m HM-PAO SPECT. Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 30(11), 1825-1829.
Dick, F., Wulfeck, B., Krupa‐Kwiatkowski, M., & Bates, E. (2004). The development of complex sentence interpretation in typically developing children compared with children with specific language impairments or early unilateral focal lesions. Developmental Science, 7(3), 360-377.
Dunn, L. M., Dunn, L. M., & Thériault-Whalen, C. M. (1993). Échelle de vocabulaire en images Peabody: EVIP. Psycan.
Dunn, L. M., Dunn, L. M., Whetton, C., & Burley, J. (1997). British picture vocabulary scale II. Windsor. UK: Nfer-Nelson.
Eichenbaum, H. (2004). Hippocampus: cognitive processes and neural representations that underlie declarative memory. Neuron, 44(1), 109-120.
Eichenbaum, H., & Cohen, N. J. (2001). From conditioning to conscious recollection: Memory systems of the brain (No. 35). Oxford University Press on Demand.
Eichenbaum, H., & Lipton, P. A. (2008). Towards a functional organization of the medial temporal lobe memory system: role of the parahippocampal and medial entorhinal cortical areas. Hippocampus, 18(12), 1314-1324.
Embick, D., Marantz, A., Miyashita, Y., O'Neil, W., & Sakai, K. L. (2000). A syntactic specialization for Broca's area. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97(11), 6150-6154.
Friederici, A. D. (2002). Towards a neural basis of auditory sentence processing. Trends in cognitive sciences, 6(2), 78-84.
Friedmann, N., & Novogrodsky, R. (2007). Is the movement deficit in syntactic SLI related to traces or to thematic role transfer?. Brain and Language, 101(1), 50-63.
Gabriel, A., Maillart, C., Guillaume, M., Stefaniak, N., & Meulemans, T. (2011). Exploration of serial structure procedural learning in children with language impairment. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17(2), 336-343.
Gabriel, A., Stefaniak, N., Maillart, C., Schmitz, X., & Meulemans, T. (2012). Procedural visual learning in children with specific language impairment.
Gabriel, A., Stefaniak, N., Maillart, C., Schmitz, X., & Meulemans, T. (2012). Procedural visual learning in children with specific language impairment.
Gabrieli, J. D. (1998). Cognitive neuroscience of human memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49(1), 87-115.
Gallagher, T. M., & Watkin, K. L. (1997). 3D Ultrasonic fetal neuroimaging and familial language disorders: In utero brain development. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 10(2-3), 187-201.
Gauger, L. M., Lombardino, L. J., & Leonard, C. M. (1997). Brain morphology in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 40(6), 1272-1284.
Giedd, J. N., Blumenthal, J., Jeffries, N. O., Castellanos, F. X., Liu, H., Zijdenbos, A., ... & Rapoport, J. L. (1999). Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study. Nature neuroscience, 2(10), 861-863.
Haebig, E., Kaushanskaya, M., & Ellis Weismer, S. (2015). Lexical Processing in School-Age Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Children with Specific Language Impairment: The Role of Semantics. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(12), 4109–4123.
Haebig, E., Kaushanskaya, M., & Ellis Weismer, S. (2015). Lexical processing in school-age children with autism spectrum disorder and children with specific language impairment: The role of semantics. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 45(12), 4109-4123.
Hagoort, P., Brown, C., & Groothusen, J. (1993). The syntactic positive shift (SPS) as an ERP measure of syntactic processing. Language and Cognitive Processes, 8(4), 439-483.
Hsu, H. J., & Bishop, D. V. (2014). Sequence‐specific procedural learning deficits in children with specific language impairment. Developmental science, 17(3), 352-365.
Indefrey, P., Hagoort, P., Herzog, H., Seitz, R. J., & Brown, C. M. (2001). Syntactic processing in left prefrontal cortex is independent of lexical meaning. Neuroimage, 14(3), 546-555.
Jernigan, T. L., Hesselink, J. R., Sowell, E., & Tallal, P. A. (1991). Cerebral structure on magnetic resonance imaging in language-and learning-impaired children. Archives of neurology, 48(5), 539-545.
Kabani, N. J., Macdonald, D., Evans, A., & Gopnik, M. (1997). Neuroanatomical correlates of familial language impairment: A preliminary report. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 10(2-3), 203-214.
Kemény, F., & Lukács, Á. (2010). Impaired procedural learning in language impairment: Results from probabilistic categorization. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 32(3), 249-258.
Khomsi, A. (2001). ELO: évaluation du langage oral. ECPA, les Éd. du Centre de psychologie appliquée.
Knowlton, B. J., Mangels, J. A., & Squire, L. R. (1996). A neostriatal habit learning system in humans. Science, 273(5280), 1399-1402.
Kutas, M., & Hillyard, S. A. (1980). Reading senseless sentences: Brain potentials reflect semantic incongruity. Science, 207(4427), 203-205.
Lahey, M., & Edwards, J. (1996). Why do children with specific language impairment name pictures more slowly than their peers?. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 39(5), 1081-1098.
Lecocq, P. Epreuve de Compréhension Syntaxico-Sémantique (1996). Presses universitaires du Septentrion, Villeneuve-d'Ascq, France.
Lee, J. C., & Tomblin, J. B. (2015). Procedural learning and individual differences in language. Language Learning and Development, 11(3), 215-236.
Lenroot, R. K., & Giedd, J. N. (2006). Brain development in children and adolescents: insights from anatomical magnetic resonance imaging. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 30(6), 718-729.
Leonard, L. B., Deevy, P., Fey, M. E., & Bredin-Oja, S. L. (2013). Sentence comprehension in specific language impairment: a task designed to distinguish between cognitive capacity and syntactic complexity. Journal of speech, language, and hearing research, 56(2), 577–589.
Lou, H. C., Henriksen, L., & Bruhn, P. (1984). Focal cerebral hypoperfusion in children with dysphasia and/or attention deficit disorder. Archives of Neurology, 41(8), 825-829.
Lum, J. A., & Bleses, D. (2012). Declarative and procedural memory in Danish speaking children with specific language impairment. Journal of Communication Disorders, 45(1), 46-58.
Lum, J. A., & Bleses, D. (2012). Declarative and procedural memory in Danish speaking children with specific language impairment. Journal of Communication Disorders, 45(1), 46-58.
Lum, J. A., Gelgic, C., & Conti-Ramsden, G. (2010a). Procedural and declarative memory in children with and without specific language impairment. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 45(1), 96-107.
Lum, J., Kidd, E., Davis, S., & Conti‐Ramsden, G. (2010). Longitudinal study of declarative and procedural memory in primary school‐aged children. Australian Journal of Psychology, 62(3), 139-148.
Lum, J., Kidd, E., Davis, S., & Conti‐Ramsden, G. (2010b). Longitudinal study of declarative and procedural memory in primary school‐aged children. Australian Journal of Psychology, 62(3), 139-148.
Martin, A., Ungerleider, L. G., & Haxby, J. V. (2000). Category specificity and the brain: The sensory/motor model of semantic representations of objects. The New Cognitive Neurosciences, 2, 1023-1036.
McGregor, K. K. , Oleson, J. , Bahnsen, A. , & Duff, D. (2013). Children with developmental language impairment have vocabulary deficits characterized by limited breadth and depth. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 48(3), 307–319.
McGregor, K. K., Newman, R. M., Reilly, R. M., & Capone, N. C. (2002). Semantic representation and naming in children with specific language impairment.
McGregor, K. K., Oleson, J., Bahnsen, A., & Duff, D. (2013). Children with developmental language impairment have vocabulary deficits characterized by limited breadth and depth. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 48(3), 307-319.
Messer, D., & Dockrell, J.E. (2006). Children's naming and word-finding difficulties: Descriptions and explanations. Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research, 49, 309– 324.
Middleton, F. A., & Strick, P. L. (2000). Basal ganglia output and cognition: evidence from anatomical, behavioral, and clinical studies. Brain and Cognition, 42(2), 183-200.
Miller, J. F. ( 1996 ) . The search for the phenotype of disordered language performance.In M. Rice ( Ed. ) , Toward a genetics of language ( pp. 297-314 ). Mabwah, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Mishkin, M., Malamut, B., & Bachevalier, J. (1984). Memories and habits: Two neural systems. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 65-77.
Montgomery, J. W., & Evans, J. L. (2009). Complex sentence comprehension and working memory in children with specific language impairment.
Moro, A., Tettamanti, M., Perani, D., Donati, C., Cappa, S. F., & Fazio, F. (2001). Syntax and the brain: disentangling grammar by selective anomalies. Neuroimage, 13(1), 110-118.
Newcomer, P. L., & Hammill, D. D. (1988). Test of Language Development-Primary. Pro-ed.
Newman, A. J., Pancheva, R., Ozawa, K., Neville, H. J., & Ullman, M. T. (2001). An event-related fMRI study of syntactic and semantic violations. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 30(3), 339-364.
Ni, W., Constable, R. T., Mencl, W. E., Pugh, K. R., Fulbright, R. K., Shaywitz, S., ... & Shankweiler, D. (2000). An event-related neuroimaging study distinguishing form and content in sentence processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(1), 120-133.
Nissen, M. J., & Bullemer, P. (1987). Attentional requirements of learning: Evidence from performance measures. Cognitive psychology, 19(1), 1-32.
Norbury, C. F., Gooch, D., Wray, C., Baird, G., Charman, T., Simonoff, E., ... & Pickles, A. (2016). The impact of nonverbal ability on prevalence and clinical presentation of language disorder: Evidence from a population study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57(11), 1247-1257.
Olivares, E., Bobes, M. A., Aubert, E., & Valdes-Sosa, M. (1994). Associative ERP effects with memories of artificial faces. Cognitive Brain Research, 2(1), 39-48.
Osterhout, L., & Holcomb, P. J. (1992). Event-related brain potentials elicited by syntactic anomaly. Journal of Memory and Language, 31(6), 785-806.
Packard, M. G., & Knowlton, B. J. (2002). Learning and memory functions of the basal ganglia. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 25(1), 563-593.
Packard, M. G., & McGaugh, J. L. (1996). Inactivation of hippocampus or caudate nucleus with lidocaine differentially affects expression of place and response learning. Neurobiology of learning and memory, 65(1), 65-72.
Pickering, S. J., & Gathercole, S. E. (2001). The Working Memory Test Battery for Children.
Poldrack, R. A., & Packard, M. G. (2003). Competition among multiple memory systems: converging evidence from animal and human brain studies. Neuropsychologia, 41(3), 245-251.
Poldrack, R. A., & Packard, M. G. (2003). Competition among multiple memory systems: converging evidence from animal and human brain studies. Neuropsychologia, 41(3), 245-251.
Reber, P. J., Knowlton, B. J., & Squire, L. R. (1996). Dissociable properties of memory systems: differences in the flexibility of declarative and nondeclarative knowledge. Behavioral Neuroscience, 110(5), 861.
Redmond, S. M. (2005). Differentiating SLI from ADHD using children's sentence recall and production of past tense morphology. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 19(2), 109-127.
Redmond, S. M., Ash, A. C., Christopulos, T. T., & Pfaff, T. (2019). Diagnostic Accuracy of Sentence Recall and Past Tense Measures for Identifying Children's Language Impairments. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research : JSLHR, 62(7), 2438–2454.
Renfrew, C. E. (1988). Renfrew action picture test. CE Renfrew.
Rice, M. L. (2003). A unified model of specific and general language delay: Grammatical tense as a clinical marker of unexpected variation. Language competence across populations: Toward a definition of specific language impairment, 1, 63-94.
Sanjeevan, T., & Mainela-Arnold, E. (2017). Procedural motor learning in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 60(11), 3259-3269.
Seger, C. A., & Cincotta, C. M. (2006). Dynamics of frontal, striatal, and hippocampal systems during rule learning. Cerebral cortex, 16(11), 1546-1555.
Squire, L. R. (2004). Memory systems of the brain: a brief history and current perspective. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 82(3), 171-177.
Squire, L. R., & Knowlton, B. J. (2000). The medial temporal lobe, the hippocampus, and the memory systems of the brain. The New Cognitive Neurosciences, 2, 756-776.
Squire, L. R., Stark, C. E., & Clark, R. E. (2004). The medial temporal lobe. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 27, 279-306.
St Clair, M. C., Forrest, C. L., Yew, S. G. K., & Gibson, J. L. (2019). Early risk factors and emotional difficulties in children at risk of developmental language disorder: A population cohort study. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 62(8), 2750-2771.
Stromswold, K., Caplan, D., Alpert, N., & Rauch, S. (1996). Localization of syntactic comprehension by positron emission tomography. Brain and Language, 52(3), 452-473.
Tallal, P., Jernigan, T., & Trauner, D. (1994). Developmental bilateral damage to the head of the caudate nuclei: Implications for speech-language pathology. Journal of Medical Speech-Language Pathology, 2(1), 23-28.
Tomblin, J. B., Mainela-Arnold, E., & Zhang, X. (2007). Procedural learning in adolescents with and without specific language impairment. Language Learning and Development, 3(4), 269-293.
Ullman, M. T. (2001). The neural basis of lexicon and grammar in first and second language: The declarative/procedural model. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 4(2), 105-122.
Ullman, M. T. (2004). Contributions of memory circuits to language: The declarative/procedural model. Cognition, 92(1-2), 231-270.
Ullman, M. T., & Pierpont, E. I. (2005). Specific language impairment is not specific to language: The procedural deficit hypothesis. Cortex, 41(3), 399-433.
Ullman, M. T., Earle, F. S., Walenski, M., & Janacsek, K. (2020). The neurocognition of developmental disorders of language. Annual Review of Psychology, 71, 389-417.
Van der Lely, H.K.J. (2005). Domain-specific cognitive systems: Insight from Grammatical-SLI. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 53– 59.
West, G., Vadillo, M. A., Shanks, D. R., & Hulme, C. (2018). The procedural learning deficit hypothesis of language learning disorders: We see some problems. Developmental Science, 21(2), e12552.