本研究利用壓力螢光感測塗料（PSP）技術，於國立成功大學航空太空研究中心低速風洞內，針對NACA 0012機翼模型進行上下表面壓力與溫度量測，檢驗並測試此技術於低雷諾數流場下量測之準確度與可行性。結果顯示在自由流風速30 ~ 50 m/s、雷諾數Re = 3.8 × 105 ~ 6.4 × 105下，無論攻角為0°或15°，雖量測到翼表面受循環式風洞影響而有整體溫升情形，但是並無出現明顯局部溫差，故不需針對壓力數據進行點對點溫度修正。壓力分布結果顯示，除0°攻角之外，上翼面隨攻角由5°上升至15°，翼前緣負壓越趨明顯，最低壓可達85 kPa，隨後接往翼後緣方向回升至參考壓力。下翼面結果顯示翼前緣部分也有明顯負壓，往後至x/c = 0.02 ~ 0.03左右出現局部高壓最大可達約105 kPa，隨後也往翼後緣方向降回至參考壓力。壓力中心線結果顯示與文獻和XFoil模擬程式結果相符，最大僅出現1 kPa之壓力高估，翼展方向最大量測誤差約為±0.7 kPa。而在攻角15°狀況下，量測並繪製自由流風速於40 ~ 60 m/s、Re = 5.1 × 105 ~ 7.7 × 105下之壓力係數分布圖，發現於此風速區間並無明顯雷諾數效應，故後續討論此雷諾數範圍之流場時可以視為流場性質相似。接著本研究利用PSP所量測之壓力數據，以二維方式計算升力係數、壓力阻力係數與俯仰力矩係數，結果顯示與XFoil模擬程式之值相近，升力係數隨攻角提升而上升，最大升力係數出現在攻角15°，其值約為1.30；壓力阻力係數同樣隨攻角上升而上升，與XFoil之偏離值皆在0.001內；俯仰力矩係數與NASA文獻比對之後，由於本研究之技術無法量測到機翼所受剪應力，故整體結果略小於文獻，但是整體趨勢相似。
接著，本研究根據國立成功大學航太系陳文立老師實驗室提供之模擬結果，設定於NACA 0012機翼上翼面x/c = 20 %位置沿翼展方向安裝一排1.5倍邊界層厚度高之co-rotating vane type渦流產生器（vortex generator, VG），觀察於自由流風速60 m/s（Re = 7.7 × 105）、攻角分別在5°、10°與15°下，加裝前後之壓力與升阻力係數變化。溫度結果顯示，由於較高的VG高度設定，導致VG前後出現較強的渦旋結構進而使得低溫區的產生，隨後往翼後緣方向因渦旋結構減弱，溫度上升至周圍氣流溫度，最大局部溫差約為1.7 ℃，故需進行點對點溫度修正。修正後壓力分布結果顯示，在5°攻角下加裝前後壓力變化甚小。而10°與15°攻角下，加裝VG後，由於VG的存在所產生之渦旋結構帶動邊界層外高動量流體進入邊界層內作動量交換，VG後方整體壓力分別約下降1 ~ 2 kPa與2 ~ 3 kPa。升力係數結果顯示，加裝VG後，低攻角時的差異較小，但高攻角時升力係數最大可提升32.3 %。不過較高的VG設定也使壓力阻力係數大幅提升，特別在低攻角下，有約37.5 %的壓力阻力提升。

This study utilized Pressure-Sensitive Paint (PSP) technique to measure the pressure and temperature on the upper and lower surfaces of the NACA 0012 airfoil in the low-speed wind tunnel at the National Cheng Kung University Aerospace Research Center. The accuracy and feasibility of this technique were examined and tested for measuring in low-Reynolds number flow conditions. The results showed that at free stream velocities of 30 to 50 m/s (Re = 3.8 × 105 ~ 6.4 × 105), regardless of the angle of attack being 0° or 15°, although temperature rise was observed on the wing surfaces due to the closed circuit wind tunnel effect, there was no significant local temperature difference, so no pixel-by-pixel temperature correction was necessary for the pressure data. The pressure distribution results indicated that except for the 0° angle of attack, the upper surface exhibited a gradual decrease in pressure at the leading edge as the angle of attack increased from 5° to 15°, with the minimum pressure reaching 85 kPa and subsequently rising toward the reference pressure in the direction of the trailing edge. The results for the lower surface showed a significant negative gauge pressure at the leading edge as well, and the pressure reaches a maximum of approximately 105 kPa abruptly around x/c = 0.02 to 0.03, followed by a decrease toward the trailing edge back to the reference pressure. The results of the centerline pressure showed agreement with the literature and XFoil simulation program, with a maximum pressure overestimation of only 1 kPa, and the maximum measurement error in the spanwise direction was approximately ±0.7 kPa. Furthermore, the lift, pressure drag and pitching moment coefficient were calculated in two-dimensional form with pressure data measured by PSP. The results showed close agreement with the values from the XFoil simulation program. The lift coefficient increased with the angle of attack, reaching its maximum value at an angle of attack of 15°, approximately 1.30. The pressure drag coefficient also increased with the angle of attack, and the deviation from XFoil was within 0.001. After comparing the pitching moment coefficient with NASA literature, it was found that due to the inability of this study's technique to measure the wing's shear stress, the overall results were slightly smaller than the literature; however, the overall trends were similar.
In addition, based on simulation results provided by Professor Wen-Lih Chen's laboratory at the Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Cheng Kung University, a row of co-rotating vane-type vortex generators (VGs) with a height of 1.5 times the boundary layer thickness is installed at the x/c = 20% position along the span of upper surface of the NACA 0012 airfoil. The investigation observes the changes in pressure, lift and drag coefficients with and without the VGs at a freestream wind speed of 60 m/s (Re = 7.7 × 105) and at AoA of 5°, 10°, and 15°.Regarding the temperature results, the higher VG height setting leads to stronger vortex structures before and after the VGs, resulting in the lower-temperature regions. The vortex structures weaken toward the leading edge and the temperature rises to match the surrounding airflow temperature. The maximum local temperature difference is approximately 1.7°C, necessitating pixel-by-pixel temperature correction. After temperature correction, the pressure distribution results show minimal changes in pressure when VGs are installed at AoA of 5°. However, at AoA of 10° and 15°, the presence of VGs induces vortex structures that drive high-momentum fluid from outside the boundary layer into the boundary layer, leading to a reduction in overall pressure of approximately 1 to 2 kPa and 2 to 3 kPa, respectively.
Concerning the lift coefficient results, the difference is relatively small when VGs are installed at low AoA. However, at high AoAs, the lift coefficient can be increased by up to 32.3%. Nonetheless, the higher VG settings also significantly increase the pressure drag coefficients, espically at low AoA, 37.5% increase in pressure drag coefficient was measured in this study.

摘要 I
Abstract III
誌謝 VI
目錄 VII
圖目錄 X
表目錄 XVIII
符號說明 1
第1章、 緒論 4
1.1 研究動機 4
1.2 文獻回顧 6
1.2.1 低雷諾數流場與研究回顧 6
1.2.2 NACA 0012機翼表面壓力相關研究 8
1.2.3 渦流誘發鰭片裝置（Vortex generator, VG） 13
1.2.4 壓力螢光感測塗料 (Pressure-sensitive paint, PSP) 19
1.2.5 溫度螢光感測塗料 (Temperature-sensitive paint, TSP) 22
1.2.6 PSP與TSP於風洞實驗中之應用 24
1.3 研究架構 30
第2章、 實驗原理 31
2.1 壓力/溫度感測螢光分子原理 31
2.1.1 光致發光（Photoluminescence） 31
2.1.2 螢光淬滅（Luminescence quenching） 33
2.2 壓力螢光感測塗料之量測原理 35
2.3 溫度螢光感測塗料之量測原理 38
2.4 溫度修正 39
2.5 氣動力係數計算 43
2.5.1 升阻力係數計算 43
2.5.2 俯仰力矩係數計算 46
第3章、 實驗架設及方法 49
3.1 PSP實驗流程 49
3.2 壓力螢光感測塗料配方 50
3.2.1 螢光分子 50
3.2.2 溶劑 51
3.2.3 黏著劑 52
3.2.4 多孔顆粒 52
3.3 溫度螢光感測塗料配方 53
3.4 底漆處理 54
3.5 塗料靜態特徵量測 56
3.5.1 壓力校正曲線量測 57
3.5.2 溫度校正曲線量測 59
3.5.3 塗料靜態特徵量測結果 60
3.6 風洞實驗 65
3.6.1 低速風洞 65
3.6.2 實驗參數設定 66
3.6.3 實驗流程 66
3.6.4 實驗模型 67
3.6.5 風洞實驗架設 70
3.7 數據處理 73
3.7.1 影像校準（Image registration） 73
3.7.2 中位數濾波（Median filter） 74
3.7.3 數據稀疏化（Sparse） 76
第4章、 研究結果與討論 77
4.1 無加裝渦流產生器 77
4.1.1 溫度分布量測結果 77
4.1.2 壓力分布量測結果 81
4.2 加裝渦流產生器 90
4.2.1 溫度分布量測結果 90
4.2.2 壓力分布量測結果 92
4.3 壓力係數分布 94
4.4 氣動力係數分析 99
4.4.1 升阻力係數 99
4.4.2 俯仰力矩係數 103
4.5 誤差分析 105
第5章、 結論與未來工作建議 107
5.1 結論 107
5.2 未來工作建議 110
參考資料 111

[1] T. J. Mueller, "Aerodynamic measurements at low raynolds numbers for fixed wing micro-air vehicles," Notre dame univ in dept of aerospace and mechanical engineering, 2000.
[2] J. I. Peterson and R. V. Fitzgerald, "New technique of surface flow visualization based on oxygen quenching of fluorescence," Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 51, no. 5, pp. 670-671, 1980.
[3] B. G. McLachlan and J. H. Bell, "Pressure-sensitive paint in aerodynamic testing," Experimental thermal and fluid science, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 470-485, 1995.
[4] J. B. Barlow, W. H. Rae, and A. Pope, Low-speed wind tunnel testing. John wiley & sons, 1999.
[5] L. E. Jones, "Numerical studies of the flow around an airfoil at low Reynolds number," University of Southampton, 2008.
[6] R. W. Fox, A. T. McDonald, and J. W. Mitchell, Fox and McDonald's introduction to fluid mechanics. John Wiley & Sons, 2020.
[7] P. Lissaman, "Low-Reynolds-number airfoils," Annual review of fluid mechanics, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 223-239, 1983.
[8] N. Gregory and C. O'reilly, "Low-speed aerodynamic characteristics of NACA 0012 aerofoil section, including the effects of upper-surface roughness simulating hoar frost," 1970.
[9] I. H. Abbott and A. E. Von Doenhoff, Theory of wing sections: including a summary of airfoil data. Courier Corporation, 2012.
[10] S. Mittal and P. Saxena, "Hysteresis in flow past a NACA 0012 airfoil," Computer methods in applied mechanics and engineering, vol. 191, no. 19-20, pp. 2207-2217, 2002.
[11] V. Bui and V. Lapygin, "Simulation of the flow past a model in the closed test section of a low-speed wind tunnel and in the free stream," Thermophysics and Aeromechanics, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 351-358, 2015.
[12] J. N. Counsil and K. Goni Boulama, "Low-reynolds-number aerodynamic performances of the NACA 0012 and Selig–Donovan 7003 Airfoils," Journal of aircraft, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 204-216, 2013.
[13] H. Shan, L. Jiang, and C. Liu, "Direct numerical simulation of flow separation around a NACA 0012 airfoil," Computers & fluids, vol. 34, no. 9, pp. 1096-1114, 2005.
[14] G. B. McCullough, G. E. Nitzberg, and J. A. Kelly, "Preliminary investigation of the delay of turbulent flow separation by means of wedge-shaped bodies," 1951.
[15] R. Grose and H. Taylor, "Theoretical and experimental investigation of various types of vortex generators," United Aircraft Corp. Research Dept., Rep, 1954.
[16] D. Manor, C. Dima, P. Schoch, and J. Polo, "Using POPUP Vortex Generators on the Wing Surface to Greatly Increase the Lift and Stll Angle of Attack," in Aerospace Design Conference, 1993, p. 1016.
[17] Z. Sun, "Micro vortex generators for boundary layer control: principles and applications," International Journal of Flow Control, vol. 7, no. 1-2, pp. 67-86, 2015.
[18] F. Lu, Q. Li, Y. Shih, A. Pierce, and C. Liu, "Review of micro vortex generators in high-speed flow," in 49th AIAA aerospace sciences meeting including the new horizons forum and aerospace exposition, 2011, p. 31.
[19] W. Calarese, W. Crisler, and G. Gustafson, "Afterbody drag reduction by vortex generators," in 23rd Aerospace Sciences Meeting, 1985, p. 354.
[20] J. Lin, F. Howard, and G. Selby, "Small submerged vortex generators for turbulent flow separation control," Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 503-507, 1990.
[21] H. Holden and H. Babinsky, "Effect of microvortex generators on seperated normal shock/boundary layer interactions," Journal of Aircraft, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 170-174, 2007.
[22] J. S. Delnero, J. Marañon Di Leo, M. E. Camocardi, M. A. Martinez, and J. L. Colman Lerner, "Experimental study of vortex generators effects on low Reynolds number airfoils in turbulent flow," International Journal of Aerodynamics, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 50-65, 2012.
[23] J. NICKERSON, J, "A study of vortex generators at low Reynolds numbers," in 24th Aerospace Sciences Meeting, 1986, p. 155.
[24] M. Bragg and G. Gregorek, "Experimental study of airfoil performance with vortex generators," Journal of aircraft, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 305-309, 1987.
[25] A. Seshagiri, E. Cooper, and L. W. Traub, "Effects of vortex generators on an airfoil at low Reynolds numbers," Journal of Aircraft, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 116-122, 2009.
[26] M. Kameda, H. Seki, T. Makoshi, Y. Amao, and K. Nakakita, "A fast-response pressure sensor based on a dye-adsorbed silica nanoparticle film," Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, vol. 171, pp. 343-349, 2012.
[27] T. Liu, B. T. Campbell, S. P. Burns, and J. P. Sullivan, "Temperature-and pressure-sensitive luminescent paints in aerodynamics," Applied Mechanics Reviews, vol. 50, pp. 227-246, 1997.
[28] J. Gregory, K. Asai, M. Kameda, T. Liu, and J. Sullivan, "A review of pressure-sensitive paint for high-speed and unsteady aerodynamics," Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part G: Journal of Aerospace Engineering, vol. 222, no. 2, pp. 249-290, 2008.
[29] K. Mitsuo, M. Kurita, K. Nakakita, and S. Watanabe, "Temperature correction of PSP measurement for low-speed flow using infrared camera," in ICIASF 2005 RecordInternational Congress onInstrumentation in AerospaceSimulation Facilities, 2005: IEEE, pp. 214-220.
[30] C.-Y. Chen, "The Application of Fast-responding Pressure Sensitive Paints on Transonic Convex Corner Pressure Measurements with Vortex Generator," 2021.
[31] H. Nagai, S. Ohmi, K. Asai, and K. Nakakita, "Effect of temperature-sensitive-paint thickness on global heat transfer measurement in hypersonic flow," Journal of Thermophysics and Heat Transfer, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 373-381, 2008.
[32] T. Liu, J. P. Sullivan, K. Asai, C. Klein, and Y. Egami, Pressure and temperature sensitive paints. Springer, 2005.
[33] C.-Y. Ye, "The Application of Pressure Sensitive Paints for Measurement of the Transonic Cavity Flow," 2019.
[34] Y.-F. Lin, "The Development and Application of Mesoporous Pressure Sensitive Paints on Transonic Flow Measurement with AGARD-B Model," 2020.
[35] R. Adrian, M. Gharib, W. Merzkirch, D. RockweH, and J. Whitelaw, "Experimental Fluid Mechanics."
[36] S. Shionoya, W. M. Yen, and H. Yamamoto, Phosphor handbook. CRC press, 2018.
[37] F. Wooten, "Optical properties of solids," American Journal of Physics, vol. 41, no. 7, pp. 939-940, 1973.
[38] H. Boaz and G. Rollefson, "The quenching of fluorescence. Deviations from the Stern-Volmer law," Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 72, no. 8, pp. 3435-3443, 1950.
[39] O. Stern, "Uder die Abklingzeit der Fluoreszenz," Phys. Z, vol. 20, pp. 183-188, 1919.
[40] M. Jahanmiri, "Pressure sensitive paints: the basics & applications," Chalmers University of Technology, 2011.
[41] S. Arrhenius, "Über die Dissociationswärme und den Einfluss der Temperatur auf den Dissociationsgrad der Elektrolyte," Zeitschrift für physikalische Chemie, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 96-116, 1889.
[42] M. Kurita, K. Nakakita, K. Mitsuo, and S. Watanabe, "Temperature correction of pressure-sensitive paint for industrial wind tunnel testing," Journal of aircraft, vol. 43, no. 5, pp. 1499-1505, 2006.
[43] J. Donovan, M. Morris, A. Pal, M. Benne, and R. Crites, "Data analysis techniques for pressure-and temperature-sensitive paint," in 31st Aerospace Sciences Meeting, 1993, p. 176.
[44] H.-S. Tsien and J. R. Baron, "Airfoils in slightly supersonic flow," Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 55-61, 1949.
[45] M. Drela and H. Youngren, "XFOIL 6.94 user guide," ed: MIT Aero & Astro, 2001.
[46] T. Benson. "Aerodynamic center - ac." National Aeronautics and Space Administration. https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/VirtualAero/BottleRocket/airplane/ac.html (accessed.
[47] K. Nakakita, M. Kurita, and K. Mitsuo, "Development of the Pressure-Sensitive Paint Measurement for Large Wind Tunnels at Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency," in ICAS, 2004, vol. 3, no. 2, p. 2004.
[48] K. Nakakita and H. Arizono, "Visualization of unsteady pressure behavior of transonic flutter using pressure-sensitive paint measurement," in 27th AIAA Applied Aerodynamics Conference, 2009, p. 3847.
[49] C.-Y. Wang, "Image Processing and Temperature Correction of Pressure-Sensitive Paint for Airfoil Surface Pressure Measurement in Low Speed Wind Tunnel," 2019.
[50] F. Manar, A. Medina, and A. R. Jones, "Tip vortex structure and aerodynamic loading on rotating wings in confined spaces," Experiments in fluids, vol. 55, no. 9, pp. 1-18, 2014.
[51] L. M. Nowak and M. Chandrasekhara, Computational investigations of a NACA 0012 airfoil in low Reynolds number flows. Monterey, California. Naval Postgraduate School, 1992.
[52] J. C. Lin, "Review of research on low-profile vortex generators to control boundary-layer separation," Progress in Aerospace Sciences, vol. 38, no. 4-5, pp. 389-420, 2002.
[53] P.-H. Chung, Y.-X. Huang, K.-M. Chung, C.-Y. Huang, and S. Isaev, "Effective Distance for Vortex Generators in High Subsonic Flows," Aerospace, vol. 10, no. 4, p. 369, 2023.
[54] R. H. Engler, M.-C. Mérienne, C. Klein, and Y. Le Sant, "Application of PSP in low speed flows," Aerospace Science and Technology, vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 313-322, 2002.
[55] H. Lee and S.-H. Kang, "Flow characteristics of transitional boundary layers on an airfoil in wakes," J. Fluids Eng., vol. 122, no. 3, pp. 522-532, 2000.
[56] C. L. Ladson, Effects of independent variation of Mach and Reynolds numbers on the low-speed aerodynamic characteristics of the NACA 0012 airfoil section. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Scientific and Technical …, 1988.
[57] M. Drela, "XFOIL: An analysis and design system for low Reynolds number airfoils," in Low Reynolds Number Aerodynamics: Proceedings of the Conference Notre Dame, Indiana, USA, 5–7 June 1989, 1989: Springer, pp. 1-12.
[58] T. F. Brooks and M. A. Marcolini, "Airfoil tip vortex formation noise," AIAA journal, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 246-252, 1986.
[59] H. Pearcey, "Shock induced separation and its prevention," Boundary layer and flow control, vol. 2, pp. 1170-1344, 1961.
[60] R. J. Moffat, "Describing the uncertainties in experimental results," Experimental thermal and fluid science, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 3-17, 1988.