馬來西亞的性少數主體面對著國家政府以伊斯蘭之名所落實的日益強烈的敵視與懲罰，而國家政府與社運人士之間也逐漸形成「普世人權論」與「在地文化論」之論述競爭。此研究旨在剖析此論述競爭的對立及其隱含的西方 / 伊斯蘭框架之歷史構成軌跡，以勾勒「揮藤鞭的國家」及「受苦的同性戀主體」各自的歷史軌跡。馬來西亞在伊斯蘭法（Syariah law）中入罪化同性性行為（musahaqah 及 liwat）是相對晚近的現象，於國家獨立後的1980年代才逐步展開。本研究的取徑與方法包括追溯馬來西亞雙軌法律制度的歷史系譜，追溯伊斯蘭法「性相關」罪行的歷史演變，透過精讀舊報紙、法庭檔案、人類學前人研究及前首相馬哈迪的著作、演講及政策等等來探究1980年在伊斯蘭法系統入罪化同性性行為的法律變遷之時代脈絡。此研究揭示了馬來西亞的性治理的種族化性質，乃根源於殖民時期對法律制度的切分及殖民者對種族劃定與治理。本研究主張，自1980年代起在伊斯蘭法入罪化同性性行為加劇了此種族化的性治理，並對（馬來）穆斯林主體數施予不成比例的影響。此研究主張，國家政府是在試圖同時追求經濟上全球化及文化上的本土化之時，建構了一種以馬來穆斯林為核心的「本土價值論」或「在地文化論」，而在這其中「同性戀」概念被挪用以指涉一簇想象的及真實的「西方影響」。因此，本研究主張國家政府以伊斯蘭之名定罪與懲罰這些新內部他者乃是現代的，而不是源於在地文化傳統，而且這樣的定罪與懲罰，是以新的知識模式和新的全球法律秩序為其發生條件的。

Sexual minorities in Malaysia face intensifying state hostility and punishment justified in the name of Islam. The state and the social activists are increasingly engaged in a discursive rivalry between “universal human rights” and “local value.” This study aims to unpack such discursive contestation and its West/Islamic undertones by tracing and mapping the historical trajectories of the formation of the whip-wielding state and the suffering homosexual subjects. The criminalisation of same-sex relations (musahaqah and liwat) in Syariah law is a relatively recent phenomenon, occurring in the post-independence era of the 1980s. The research approach and methods involve tracing the historical genealogy of the dual-track legal system of Malaysia, delving into the nuanced evolution of Syariah sexual offences, and exploring the historical context of the legal changes through close readings of old newspaper archives, court documents, previous anthropological studies, and former Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad's writings, speeches and policies. This study reveals the racialised nature of sexual governance in Malaysia is rooted in the colonial demarcation of its legal system and the colonial definition and regulation of race. This study demonstrates the criminalisation of same-sex relations in Syariah laws since the 1980s marked a significant shift, as it deepened the existing racialised nature of sexual governance, which disproportionately impacted (Malay) Muslim subjects. This study argues that the state, in its pursuit of a paradoxical route of economic globalisation and cultural localisation, has constructed the Malay-Muslim-centric “local culture” or “local value” discourse, in which the concept of "homosexuality" became a signifier for a constellation of imagined and real "Western influences" that went beyond the sexual behaviour or the sexual subject itself. Thus, the state criminalisation of and punishment against this new domestic other, in the name of Islam, is distinctly “modern” rather than stemming from tradition, it is highly conditioned by a new mode of knowledge and new global legal order.

Table of Contents
摘要 i
Abstract ii
Acknowledgement iii
Table of Contents v
Chapter 1. Introduction 1
Homosexuality as a lever in local and international politics 5
“Human rights” vs ”Local value”: West / Islam dichotomy undertone 11
Organization of chapters 18
Chapter 2. History genealogy of Malaysian dual-track legal system and the sex laws 22
Islam and the dual-track legal system 22
“Islamic” laws and sex laws 32
(Re-)criminalisation of liwat and musahaqah in the 1980s 41
Define(d) and Rule(d) : When the colonised became the nativist 43
Chapter 3. Sculpturing “Islamic tradition” in the course of nation-building 50
Moral panic over Malay women’s sexuality 54
Islam revivalism in the 1970s post-riots context 61
Inventing a “Syariah” legal tradition 74
“Look East” and “Asian Value” out of political expediency 89
Concluding notes 101
Chapter 4. Racialised sexual governance in the time of homonationalism 104
New mode of knowledge/power in the wake of gay movement 105
“Sexual citizenship” and the untouched inequality 116
Chapter 5. Conclusion 122
Works cited 129
Appendices 139
Table 1. Syariah provisions that outlaw same-sex sexual relations. 139
Table 2. Syariah offences related to sex, body, marriage and family under Enactment No. 8 Of 1982 (Pahang) 143
Table 3. Syariah offences related to sex, body, marriage and family under Enactment No. 2 Of 1985 (Kelantan) 146

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