慢性疾病如心血管疾病、糖尿病、慢性呼吸系統疾病、和神經退化性疾病等由於持續時間長，是全球發病率和死亡率的主要原因之一。因此早期診斷和監測體內生理標誌物質包括穀胱甘肽(GSH)、腎上腺素、和 C-型反應蛋白質 (CRP) 等相當重要。而結合有機和無機奈米材料來開發具成本效益的奈米酶感測技術，對提昇低濃度生理標誌物的早期診斷監測有其必要性。因此本研究的主要目的在於利用開發有機-無機奈米材料複合物，藉由其本身優異的光學與電化學特性，來進行生物體內標誌物包括GSH、腎上腺素、和 CRP的快速檢測分析，在有機奈米材料部份，本研究選用石墨烯量子點 (GQDs)及石墨化碳化氮量子點 (CNQDs)作為感測元件，在無機物部份，則選擇磷酸錳、金奈米顆粒、及二硫化鉬作為奈米酶，同時進行不同的組合，以評估複合材料的分析感測能力。
與大多數使用水熱和複雜程序的研究不同，本研究開發了一種簡單的室溫方法來製造 Mn3(PO4)2·3H2O (MnPNF) 奈米酶在進行GSH的快速檢測分析，與天然 HRP 相比，MnPNF具有高比表面積和優異的催化活性，對 GSH 的檢測的相當靈敏且具高選擇性，在 PBS 和稀釋的人體血清中的檢測分析極限(LODs)分別為 20 和 26.6 nM。本研究同時也開發了一種新穎且具有成本效益的CNQD-Au奈米感測技術，用於檢測腎上腺素。當CNQD-Au感測元件修飾4-amino-3-hydrazino-5-mercapto-1,2,4-triazole (AHMT)後，AHMT 可藉由氫鍵與 腎上腺素進行鏈結，導致從 CNQD 到 Au奈米顆粒的非輻射能量轉移，因此造成CNQD螢光強度的淬滅。所開發的CNQD-Au感測元件表現出 7 個數量級 (10 pM - 100 µM) 的寬動態範圍，而LODs在 PBS 中為 7 pM，在 10倍稀釋人體血清中為 35pM。另所開發的感測元件也具有相當優異的選擇性，在同時添加 26 種其他干擾的溶液中，CNQD-Au仍然清楚辨別腎上腺素，不受基質干擾。此外，通過水熱法合成了MoS2中空奈米管(MoS2 HT)，配合Au及S, N-共摻雜GQDs，可形成MoS2@Au/S，N-GQD電化學感測元件，可用於 CRP 的電化學阻抗特異性檢測。由於 MoS2 HT 具有製造簡單、大比表面積、及優異電化學性能等特色，配合Au奈米顆粒 和 S,N-GQDs的電傳導特性，MoS2@Au/S、N-GQD 電化學感測元件對 CRP的 檢測表現出顯著的靈敏度和穩定性，其具有從 10 到 50 μg mL-1的寬線性檢測範圍，且在PBS 中的LOD可低至0.04 pg mL-1，在人體血清樣品中則為0.08 pg mL-1。 經由上述的研究成果，本研究明確顯示有機-無機複合材料可作為光學或電化學感測元件的新穎材料，來快速且靈敏地進行生理和氧化應答型生物標誌物的檢測分析，不僅具有簡單及低成本的特色，在慢性疾病的潛在醫學檢測中也提供一快速有效的工作，可適用於慢性疾病的早期診斷與預防。

Chronic diseases are long lasting conditions with persistence over an extended period, progress slowly, and are a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancer, respiratory diseases, kidney disease, and neurodegenerative diseases. Maintaining optimal levels of GSH to protect cells from oxidative stress, managing stress and reducing adrenaline levels to prevent exacerbation of chronic diseases, and monitoring CRP levels to predict the risk and manage the progression of chronic diseases are important strategies for the prevention and management of chronic diseases. To improve biosensor performance and mobility, researchers are combining cost-effective organic and inorganic nanomaterials, resulting in unique properties like improved mechanical strength, enhanced electrical/optical properties, and increased stability. The purpose of this thesis is to design, fabricate, and characterize integrated organic-inorganic nanosensors to analyze physiological chronic biomarkers. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) and Quantum dots (QDs) are widely used organic molecules in sensing applications, while inorganic materials like manganese (Mn) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are employed due to their unique properties, particularly in colorimetric, electrochemical, and localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) sensing. Different combinations of inorganic and organic materials were fabricated to specific application and target analytes, and their sensing performance was evaluated.
Unlike most studies that use hydrothermal and complex procedures, we developed a simple room temperature method to fabricate Mn3(PO4)2·3H2O (MnPNF) nanozyme. The BSA can complex with Mn+2 to serve nucleation center to produce MnPNFs in PBS, which exhibits high specific surface area and superior catalytic activity compared to natural HRP. MnPNF exhibits oxidase-like activity through a redox reaction with 3,3', 5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine. However, the presence of GSH can reduce MnPNF to Mn2+ and inhibit its oxidase-like activity. The MnPNF also shows excellent sensitivity and selectivity for GSH detection, with low limits of detection of 20 and 26.6 nM in PBS and diluted human serum, respectively. In another study, we have developed a novel and cost-effective nanosensor for the detection of adrenaline. The sensor combines highly fluorescent g-C3N4 quantum dots (CNQDs) with surface plasmon resonance gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) in the presence of 4-amino-3-hydrazino-5-mercapto-1,2,4-triazole (AHMT) as the recognizer to link with ADR via hydrogen bonding, resulting in non-radiative energy transfer from CNQD to AuNP and quenching of fluorescence intensity upon addition of ADR. The sensing probe exhibited a wide dynamic range of 7 orders of magnitude (10 pM - 100 µM) and a low limit of detection of 7 pM in PBS and 35pM in 10% human serum, while demonstrating superior selectivity over 26 other interferences. Furthermore, hierarchical tubular MoS2 (MoS2 HT) were synthesized via a hydrothermal method and then functionalized with Au and S, N-GQDs to create a functional probe called MoS2@Au/S, N-GQD. This probe was used for electrochemical impedimetric specific detection of C-reactive protein (CRP). The large surface area and excellent electrochemical properties of MoS2 HT, combined with the functionalization, allowed for remarkable sensitivity and stability in CRP detection. The linear detection range was from 10 pg mL-1 to 50 μg mL-1, with a low detection limit of 0.04 pg mL-1 in PBS and 0.08 pg mL-1 in human serum samples. The Es||MoS2@Au/S, N-GQD impedimetric immunosensor showed high efficiency and label-free performance for CRP detection, making it suitable for the early-stage diagnosis of acute inflammatory diseases.
Overall, the findings from this study unequivocally highlight the viability and potential of utilizing integrated organic-inorganic nanosensors as promising materials for the detection of physiological and oxidative stress biomarkers, paving the way for potential diagnostic of chronic diseases.

中文摘要 i
Abstract iv
Acknowledgements vii
List of Figures xv
List of Tables xx
CHAPTER 1. Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Nanomaterials in biosensors 1
1.3 Integrated organic-inorganic nanomaterials for biosensing 2
1.4 Chronic diseases 5
1.5 Motivation 7
1.6 Objectives of research 9
1.7 Thesis organization 10
CHAPTER 2. Literature review 12
2.1 Sensors 13
2.2 Biosensors 13
2.2.1 Fundamentals of biosensors 14
2.2.2 Classification of biosensors 16
2.2.3 Optical biosensors 17
2.2.4 Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) 21
2.3 Sensor Performance Characteristics 21
2.3.1 Response and Sensitivity 21
2.3.2 Selectivity 22
2.3.3 Accuracy 22
2.3.4 Precision 22
2.3.5 Response time 22
2.3.6 Stability 22
2.3.7 Limit of detection (LOD) 22
2.3.8 Dynamic Range 23
2.4 Chronic disease 24
2.4.1 GSH: 25
2.4.2 Adrenaline: 26
2.4.3 CRP: 26
2.4.4 Nanomaterials for the detection of chronic disease 26
2.5 Integrated organic and inorganic nanostructured materials for biosensors 28
2.6 Nanozymes . 28
2.6.1 Nanozymes in biosensing applications 30
2.6.2 Preparation of Mn-based nanozymes 32
2.6.3 Integration of protein-inorganic self-assembled hybrid nanoflowers for biosensing 34
2.7 Quantum dots 37
2.7.1 Carbon based Quantum dots 38
2.7.2 g-CNQDs 39
2.8 Au nanoparticles 42
2.8.1 Synthesis of gold nanoparticles 43
2.8.2 Localized surface plasmon resonance 44
2.9 Integration of fluorescent QDs and plasmonic metal nanoparticles for biosensing application 45
2.9.1 Functionalization of QDs and AuNPs for biosensing applications 46
2.10 MoS2 for biosensing application 47
CHAPTER 3. Experimental section 51
3.1 Materials: 51
3.2 Methodologies 51
3.2.1 Synthesis of BSA stabilized MnPNF 51
3.2.2 Synthesis of CNQDs 52
3.2.3 Synthesis of different size of gold nanoparticles 53
3.2.4 Functionalization of CNQDs and AuNPs with AHMT 54
3.2.5 Synthesis of MoS2 hierarchical tubular 54
3.2.6 Synthesis of S, N-GQDs 55
3.2.7 Preparation of Au decorated MoS2 HT 56
3.2.8 Attachment of S, N-GQDs on Au decorated MoS2 HT 56
3.3 GSH detection methods 57
3.3.1 Detection of GSH 57
3.3.2 Detection of GSH in human serum samples 58
3.4 ADR detection methods 58
3.4.1 Detection of ADR 58
3.4.2 Detection of ADR in human serum samples 59
3.5 CRP detection methods 59
3.5.1 Detection of CRP by MoS2@Au/S, N-GQDs/CRP-Ab immunosensor 59
3.5.2 Detection of CRP in real samples 60
3.6 Instruments used for characterization 60
3.6.1 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) 60
3.6.2 Scanning electron microscopy 60
3.6.3 X-ray diffraction (XRD) 61
3.6.4 Thermogravimetric analysis 61
3.6.5 Fluorescence 62
3.6.6 UV-visible spectrometer (UV-vis) 62
3.6.7 Electrochemical measurements 62
3.6.8 Detection of Glutathione by UV-Visible spectroscopy 62
3.6.9 Fluorometric sensing of ADR using the AHMT functionalized CNQD-AuNP probe 63
CHAPTER 4. Application of Integrated Organic-Inorganic Nanomaterials in Optical Biosensor 64
4.1 Detection of GSH using BSA-Mn3(PO4)2·3H2O nanoflower (MnPNF) 64
4.1.1 Introduction 64
4.1.2 Characterization of MnPNF 67
4.1.3 Evolution of peroxidase-like activity of MnPNF 70
4.1.4 Optimization of GSH detection 73
4.1.5 Steady-state kinetics studies of MnPNF nanoenzyme 74
4.1.6 Detection of GSH 77
4.1.7 Selectivity of the MnPNF-TMB probe 80
4.1.8 GSH detection in human serum samples 81
4.2 Detection of Adrenaline using AHMT functionalized CNQDs and AuNPs 82
4.2.1 Introduction 82
4.2.2 Structural characteristics of CNQDs and AuNPs 86
4.2.3 Characterizations of AHMT functionalized CNQDs and AuNPs nanocomposites 88
4.2.4 Optical property of CNQDs 90
4.2.5 Effect of AuNPs size on sensing performance 94
4.2.6 Mechanism of proposed sensor for ADR detection 94
4.2.7 Detection of ADR 95
4.2.8 Detection of ADR in human serum sample 97
4.2.9 Selectivity and stability of AHMT-conjugated CNQD-AuNPs sensor 100
CHAPTER 5. Application of MoS2@Au /S, NGQDs based electrochemicalbiosensor 103
5.1 INTRODUCTION 103
5.2 Structural characterization of S, N-GQD decorated MoS2@Au immunosensor 107
5.3 Electrochemical characterization . 112
5.4 Optimization of electrochemical performance of MoS2@Au/S, N-GQDs immunosensor 114
5.5 Detection of CRP by S, N-GQD decorated MoS2@Au Immunosensor 116
5.6 Selectivity and stability of the Immunosensor 119
5.7 Detection of CRP in human serum samples 121
CHAPTER 6. Conclusion and Future Perspective 123
6.1 Conclusion 123
6.2 Outlook for Future Work 127
Publications and contributions

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