旁觀者是影響網路霸凌動態變化的最重要角色，我們期待更多的旁觀者在網路霸凌中可以支持或保護受害者，而不只是做一個冷漠的局外人。因此增加旁觀者在網路霸凌中的積極介入是一個值得關注的議題。先前研究發現網路霸凌情境中的匿名身份會抑制旁觀者介入，然而本研究從社會交換理論角度出發，認為網路匿名身份有助於旁觀者在介入網路霸凌時降低可能付出的幫助成本，例如潛在的負面評價、被報復的風險等，從而保護了旁觀者的介入傾向，所以匿名旁觀者的介入傾向應高於具名旁觀者。然而為何以往研究未能發現這一效果？本研究認為情境幫助成本是一個重要調節變項。可預見的是在情境幫助成本較高時，匿名對幫助成本的降低才會顯得有意義。因此，本研究假設匿名性與情境幫助成本對旁觀者介入的影響存在交互作用：在高幫助成本的網路霸凌情境中，匿名的旁觀者會比具名的旁觀者有更多的介入傾向。在低幫助成本的網路霸凌情境中，依據以往研究的結果，匿名旁觀者的介入傾向會低於具名旁觀者。
在研究一中，151名高中學生被隨機分派至「匿名」或「具名」旁觀者組，並用參與者知覺的「校園排斥」程度作為參與者在校園霸凌情境中幫助成本的指標。參與者們隨後閱讀了一篇有關校園網路霸凌事件的模擬情境，該情境描述了某同班同學在網路論壇中被人揭露了尷尬的秘密並被留言惡語相向。結果支持了匿名性與幫助成本存在顯著的交互作用。條件化效果分析顯示，在知覺校園有較高排斥程度的參與者（較高「幫助成本」，PR > 58）中，匿名組的參與者會比具名組有更高的介入傾向，但對於知覺校園有較低排斥程度的參與者而言（較低「幫助成本」，PR < 58），「匿名」與「具名」組並不存在顯著的組間差異。
研究二增加了對網路霸凌情境中幫助成本的主動操弄，在情境中將提供旁觀者高或低「被報復風險」的線索，並與匿名性（「匿名」或「具名」）形成了2 × 2組間設計。未參與研究一的197名高中學生被隨機分派至四組，並閱讀了與研究一相似的情境。結果發現匿名性與情境幫助成本對旁觀者介入的交互作用仍然顯著：在低情境幫助成本時，匿名組的參與者的旁觀者介入傾向低於具名組，不過組間差異未達顯著（p = .081）；但在高情境幫助成本下，匿名組的參與者的旁觀者介入傾向顯著高於具名組。在情境幫助成本的調節下，匿名性對旁觀者介入的影響效果發生了翻轉。研究二還驗證了一個調節式中介模式以助於揭示內在機制，發現在高情境幫助成本下，「匿名」組相較於「具名」組，所知覺的幫助成本較低，並因此提升了介入傾向，但低情境幫助成本下，並不存在這一間接路徑。

Bystanders are the most important role in influencing the dynamic change of cyberbullying. We hope that more bystanders can support or protect victims in cyberbullying, instead of just being indifferent strangers. Therefore, it’s a real concern that how to increase the positive intervention of bystanders. From the perspective of social exchange theory, this study argued that anonymity online can help bystanders to avoid the adverse consequences of intervention in cyberbullying, such as potential negative evaluation and the risk of retaliation, so as to protect the intervention tendency of bystanders. Obviously, this effect should only be found in the cyberbullying situation where the cost of helping is high. And it may not have a significant effect when the cost of helping is low, even if anonymous identity can avoid such cost of helping. Therefore, this study hypothesized a significant interaction between anonymity and the cost of helping: anonymous bystanders are more likely to intervene than named bystanders in the cyberbullying where the cost of helping is high.
In study 1, 151 high school students were randomly assigned to anonymous or named condition, and the degree of "school exclusion" of participants were used as the indicator of the cost of helping in the following scenario. Then the participants read a simulated cyberbullying scenario, in which someone revealed your classmate’ embarrassing secrets in an online forum and the comments also attacked your classmate. The result supported a significant interaction between anonymity and the cost of helping. Conditional effect analysis showed that anonymous (vs named) participants with a high-cost of helping (PR > 58) had higher bystander intervention. but there was no significant intergroup difference for participants with a low-cost of helping (PR < 58).
In study 2, both anonymity and the situational cost of helping were actively manipulated. 197 high school students who were not involved in study 1 read a similar scenario. The results showed that the interaction between anonymity and situational cost of helping on bystander intervention was still significant: participants in the anonymous condition at low situational cost of helping had lower, but not significant, bystander intervention than participants in the named condition (p =.081). However, participants in the anonymous condition had significantly higher bystander intervention than participants in the named condition when the cost of helping was high. To some extent, the influence of anonymity on bystander intervention is reversed by the moderation of cost of helping. This study 2 also examined a moderated mediation model, and found that under high situational cost of helping, the anonymous condition would perceive a lower cost of helping and affect bystander intervention through perceived cost of helping partly, but in the low help cost situation, there is no such indirect path.

摘要 i
Abstract ii
表目錄 vi
圖目錄 vii
第一章 緒論 1
第二章 文獻探討 3
第一節 網路霸凌與旁觀者行為 3
一、網路霸凌的界定與特徵 3
二、網路霸凌中的旁觀者介入 5
第二節 旁觀者的匿名性——面具下的個人 8
一、匿名的操弄 8
二、匿名對旁觀者介入的影響 9
第三節 幫助成本——介入前的評估 11
一、社會交換理論與旁觀者介入 11
二、網路霸凌情境中的幫助成本及其影響 13
三、旁觀者匿名性與情境幫助成本的互動 15
第四節 本研究概述 17
第三章 研究一 18
第一節 研究方法 18
一、參與者 18
二、研究程序與材料 18
第二節 研究結果 20
一、操弄檢核 20
二、旁觀者介入傾向 21
第三節 研究討論 24
第四章 研究二 26
第一節 研究方法 26
一、參與者 26
二、研究程序與材料 27
第二節 研究結果與討論 28
一、操弄檢核 28
二、旁觀者介入傾向 28
第五章 總體討論 34
第一節 研究結果的解釋 34
第二節 理論與實務價值 36
一、理論價值 36
二、實務價值 36
第三節 研究限制與未來研究展望 38
參考文獻 40
附錄 47

Banyard, V. L., Plante, E. G., Cohn, E. S., Moorhead, C., Ward, S., & Walsh, W. (2005). Revisiting unwanted sexual experiences on campus: A 12-year follow up. Violence Against Women, 11, 426–446. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801204274388
Barlińska, J., Szuster, A., & Winiewski, M. (2013). Cyberbullying among adolescent bystanders: Role of the communication medium, form of violence, and empathy. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 23(1), 37–51. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2137
Baron, R. A. (1970). Magnitude of model’s apparent pain and ability to aid the model as determinants of observer reaction time. Psychonomic Science, 21(4), 196–197. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03332439
Bastiaensens, S., Vandebosch, H., Poels, K., Van Cleemput, K., DeSmet, A., & De Bourdeaudhuij, I. (2014). Cyberbullying on social network sites. An experimental study into bystanders’ behavioral intentions to help the victim or reinforce the bully. Computers in Human Behavior, 31, 259–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.10.036
Batson, C. D., Bolen, M. H., Cross, J. A., & Neuringer-Benefiel, H. E. (1986). Where is the altruism in the altruistic personality? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 212–220. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.50.1.212
Batson, C. D., Cochran, P. J., Biederman, M. F., Blosser, J. L., Ryan, M. J., & Vogt, B. (1978). Failure to Help When in a Hurry: Callousness or Conflict? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 4(1), 97–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/014616727800400120
Batson, C. D., Coke, J. S., Jasnoski, M. L., & Hanson, M. (1978). Buying kindness: Effect of an extrinsic incentive for helping on perceived altruism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 4, 86–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/014616727800400118
Batson, C. D., Kobrynowicz, D., Dinnerstein, J. L., Kampf, H. C., & Wilson, A. D. (1997). In a very different voice: Unmasking moral hypocrisy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1335–1348. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.6.1335
Bauer, D. J., & Curran, P. J. (2005). Probing interactions in fixed and multilevel regression: Inferential and graphical techniques. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 40, 373–400. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr40035
Bickman, L., & Helwig, H. (1979). Bystander reporting of a crime: The impact of incentives. Criminology, 17, 283–300. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1979.tb01295.x
Bollen, K. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York, NY: Wiley.
Brink, A., Eller, C. K., & Gan, H. (2015). Reporting Fraud: An Examination of the Bystander Effect and Evidence Strength. Advances in Accounting Behavioral Research, 125–154. https://doi.org/10.1108/s1475-148820150000018004
Brody, N., & Vangelisti, A. L. (2016). Bystander intervention in cyberbullying. Communication Monographs, 83(1), 94–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2015.1044256
Darley, J. M., & Batson, C. D. (1973). From Jerusalem to Jericho: A study of situational and dispositional variables in helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27, 100–108.
Darley, J. M., & Latané, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of Responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 377–383. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0025589
Darley, J. M., & Latané, B. (1970). The unresponsive bystander: Why doesn’t he help. New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Dillon, K. P., & Bushman, B. J. (2015). Unresponsive or un-noticed?: Cyberbystander intervention in an experimental cyberbullying context. Computers in Human Behavior, 45, 144–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.12.009
Dooley, J. J., Pyzalski, J. & Cross, D. (2009). Cyberbullying versus face-to-face bullying. Journal of Psychology, 217, https://doi.org/182–188. 10.1027/0044-3409.217.4.182
Drogin, E. Y. & Young, K. (2008). Forensic mental health aspects of adolescent “cyber bullying”: A jurisprudent science perspective. The Journal of Psychiatry & Law, 36, 679–690. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/009318530803600412
Duggan, M. (2017). Online harassment 2017. Retrieved from Pew Research Center website: https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/04/10/share-of-u-s-adults-using-socialmedia-including-facebook-is-mostly-unchanged-since-2018/
Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Science, 319, 1687–1688. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150952
Edwards, J. R., & Lambert, L. S. (2007). Methods for integrating moderation and mediation: A general analytical framework using moderated path analysis. Psychological Methods, 12, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989x.12.1.1
Erreygers, S., Pabian, S., Vandebosch, H., & Baillien, E. (2016). Helping behavior among adolescent bystanders of cyberbullying: The role of impulsivity. Learning and Individual Differences, 48, 61–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.03.003
Fischer, P., Krueger, J. I., Greitemeyer, T., Vogrincic, C., Kastenmüller, A., Frey, D., . . . Kainbacher, M. (2011). The bystander-effect: a meta-analytic review on bystander intervention in dangerous and non-dangerous emergencies. Psychological bulletin, 137(4), 517–537. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023304
Foa, U. G., & Foa, E. B. (1975). Resource theory of social exchange. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press
Garcia, S. M., Weaver, K., Moskowitz, G. B., & Darley, J. M. (2002). Crowded minds: The implicit bystander effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(4), 843-853. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.4.843
Gleason, M. E. J., Iida, M., Bolger, N., & Shrout, P. E. (2003). Daily supportive equity in close relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1036–1045. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203253473
GROSS-MANOS, D. (2015). Material deprivation and social exclusion of children: lessons from measurement attempts among children in Israel. Journal of Social Policy, 44, 105–125. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047279414000646
Hayes, A. F., & Matthes, J. (2009). Computational procedures for probing interactions in OLS and logistic regression: SPSS and SAS implementations. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 924–936. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.3.924
Hampton, K. N., Goulet, L. S., Rainie, L., & Purcell, K. (2011). Social networking sites and our lives (Vol. 1). Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life Project.
Hardy, C. L., & Van Vugt, M. (2006). Nice guys finish first: The competitive altruism hypothesis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 1402–1413. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206291006
Hawkins, D., Pepler, D. J., & Craig, W. M. (2001). Naturalistic observations of peer interventions in bullying. Social Development, 10, 512–527. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467- 9507.00178
Henrich, J., McElreath, R., Barr, A., Ensminger, J., Barrett, C., Bolyanatz, A., Cardenas, J. C., … Ziker, J. (2006). Costly punishment across human societies. Science, 312, 1767–1770. https://doi.org/ 10.1126/science.1127333
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2013). Social Influences on Cyberbullying Behaviors Among Middle and High School Students. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(5), 711–722. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9902-4
Hock. R. R. (2014). Forty Studies that Changed Psychology [7th ed.]. Pearson Education.
Hoffman, M. L. (1981). Is altruism part of human nature? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 121–137. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.40.1.121
Homans, G. C. (1961). Social behavior. New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace and World.
Jacobs, J. D. (2010). Teen Cyberbullying Investigated. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing.
Jones, L. M., Mitchell, K. J., & Finkelhor, D. (2013). Online harassment in context: Trends from three Youth Internet Safety Surveys (2000, 2005, 2010). Psychology of Violence, 3(1), 53–69. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030309
Juvonen, J. & Gross, E. F. (2008). Extending the school grounds? –Bullying experiences in cyberspace. Journal of School Health, 78, 496–505. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2008.00335.x
Karakashian, L., Walter, M., Christopher, A., & Lucas, T. (2006). Fear of negative evaluation affects helping behavior: The bystander effect revisited. North American Journal of Psychology, 8(1), 13–32.
Kowalski, R. M., & Limber, S. P. (2007). Electronic bullying among middle school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, S22–S30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.017
Krebs, D. (1970). Altruism—An examination of the concept and a review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 73, 258–302. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/h0028987
Latané, B., & Darley, J. M. (1968). Group inhibition of bystander intervention in emergencies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10(3), 215–221. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0026570
Levine, M., & Crowther, S. (2008). The responsive bystander: How social group membership and group size can encourage as well as inhibit bystander intervention. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(6), 1429–1439. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0012634
MacDonald, C. D., & Roberts-Pittman, B. (2010). Cyberbullying among college students: prevalence and demographic differences. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 9, 2003–2009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.12.436
Macháčková, H., Dedkova, L., & Mezulanikova, K. (2015). Brief report: The bystander effect in cyberbullying incidents. Journal of Adolescence, 43, 96–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.05.010
Macháčková, H., Dedkova, L., Sevcikova, A., & Cerna, A. (2012). Bystanders’ Support of Cyberbullied Schoolmates. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 23(1), 25–36. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2135
Macháčková, H., & Pfetsch, J. (2016). Bystanders’ responses to offline bullying and cyberbullying: The role of empathy and normative beliefs about aggression. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 57, 169–176. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12277
Matsunaga, M. (2011). Underlying circuits of social support for bullied victims: an appraisal-based perspective on supportive communication and postbullying adjustment. Human Communication Research, 37, 174–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468- 2958.2010.01398.x
Mesch, G. S. (2009). Parental mediation, online activities, and cyberbullying. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 12, 387–393. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2009.0068
Mills, C. B., & Carwile, A. M. (2009). The good, the bad, and the borderline: separating
teasing from bullying. Communication Education, 58, 276–301. https://doi.org/10.1080/03634520902783666
Moriarity, T. (1975). Crime, commitment, and the responsive bystanders: Two field experiments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 370–376. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076288
Morgan-Lopez, A., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2006). Demonstration and evaluation of a method for assessing mediated moderation. Behavior Research Methods, 38, 77–89. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03192752
Morrow, A., & Downey, C. A. (2013). Perceptions of adolescent bullying: Attributions of blame and responsibility in cases of cyber-bullying. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 54(6), 536–540. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12074
Muller, D., Judd, C. M., & Yzerbyt, V. Y. (2005). When mediation is moderated and moderation is mediated. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 852–863. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.6.852
Myers, D. G., & Twenge, J. M. (2016). Social Psychology [12th ed.]. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
Nicksa, S. C. (2014). Bystander’s willingness to report theft, physical assault, and sexual assault: The impact of gender, anonymity, and relationship with the offender. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(2), 217–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513505146
Nolan, C., Nolan, J., & Thomas, E. (2012). The dark knight rises. Burbank, CA: Warner Home Video.
Obermaier, M., Fawzi, N., & Koch, T. (2016). Bystanding or standing by? How the number of bystanders affects the intention to intervene in cyberbullying. New Media & Society, 18, 1491–1507. http://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814563519
Ocampo, B. W., Shelley, G. A., & Jaycox, L. H. (2007). Latino teens talk about help seeking and help giving in relation to dating violence. Violence Against Women, 13, 172–189. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801206296982
Patchin, J. W., & Hinduja, S. (2006). Bullies move beyond the schoolyard: A preliminary look at cyberbullying. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4, 148–169. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204006286288
Patchin, J. W., & Hinduja, S. (2019). Summary of our cyberbullying research (2007-2019). Retrieved from Cyberbullying Research Center website: https://cyberbullying.org/summary-of-our-cyberbullying-research
Piliavin, J. A. (2003). Doing well by doing good: Benefits for the benefactor. In C. L. M. Keyes & J. Haidt (Eds.), Flourishing: Positive psychology and the life well-lived. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Piliavin, J. A., Evans, D. E., & Callero, P. (1982). Learning to “Give to unnamed strangers”: The process of commitment to regular blood donation. In E. Staub, D. Bar-Tal, J. Karylowski, & J. Reykawski (Eds.), The development and maintenance of prosocial behavior: International perspectives. New York, NY: Plenum.
Piliavin, J. A., & Piliavin, I. M. (1972). Effect of blood on reactions to a victim. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 23(3), 353–361. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0033166
Polder-Verkiel SE (2012) Online responsibility: bad samaritanism and the influence of internet mediation. Science and Engineering Ethics, 18, 117–141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-010-9253-z.
Pollack, J. M., Vanepps, E. M., & Hayes, A. F. (2012). The moderating role of social ties on entrepreneurs’ depressed affect and withdrawal intentions in response to economic stress. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33(6), 789–810. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1794
Randall, P. (1997). Adult Bullying: Perpetrators and Victims. East Sussex, England: Psychology Press.
Rosenbaum, D. P., Lurigio, A. J., & Lavrakas, P. J. (1986). Crime stoppers: A national evaluation of program operations and effects. Washington, DC: National Institutes of Justice.
Rothe, P. J., Elgert, L., & Deedo, R. (2002). Dynamic influences on bystander actions: Program recommendations from the field. Edmonton, Canada: Alberta Centre for Injury Control and Research, University of Alberta.
Schwartz, S. H., & Gottlieb, A. (1980). Bystander anonymity and reactions to emergencies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(3), 418–430. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.39.3.418
Shotland, R. L., & Heinold, W. D. (1985). Bystander response to arterial bleeding: Helping skills, the decision-making process, and differentiating the helping response. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 347–356. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.49.2.347
Shotland, R. L., & Straw, M. K. (1976). Bystander response to an assault: When a man attacks a woman. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 990–999. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.34.5.990
Slonje, R., & Smith, P. K. (2008). Cyberbullying: Another main type of bullying? Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 49, 147–154. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2007.00611.x
Smith, P. K., Mahdavi, J., Carvalho, M., Fisher, S., Russell, S., & Tippett, N. (2008). Cyberbullying: Its nature and impact in secondary school pupils. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 49(4), 376–385. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.(2007).01846.x.
Smith, P.K., Talamelli, L., Cowie, H., Naylor, P. & Chauhan, P. (2004), Profiles of non‐victims, escaped victims, continuing victims and new victims of school bullying. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 565–581. https://doi.org/10.1348/0007099042376427
Solomon, L. Z., Solomon, H., & Maiorca, J. (1982). The Effects of Bystander’s Anonymity, Situational Ambiguity, and Victim’s Status on Helping. Journal of Social Psychology, 117(2), 285. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1982.9713438
Spears, R. and Postmes, T. (2015). Group Identity, Social Influence, and Collective Action Online. In S.S. Sundar (Ed.), The Handbook of the Psychology of Communication Technology. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118426456.ch2
Stone, C., & Isaacs, M. L. (2002). Involving Students in Violence Prevention: Anonymous Reporting and the Need to Promote and Protect Confidences. NASSP Bulletin, 86(633), 54–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/019263650208663305
Suler J (2004) The online disinhibition effect. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 7, 321–326. https://doi.org/10.1089/1094931041291295
Tokunaga, R. S. (2010). Following you home from school: A critical review and synthesis of research on cyberbullying victimization. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 277–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2009.11.014
Tolsma, J., Blaauw, J., & te Grotenhuis, M. (2011). When do people report crime to the police? Results from a factorial survey design in the Netherlands, 2010. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 8(2), 117–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-011-9138-4
Tomasello, M. (2009). Why we cooperate. Boston, MA: MIT Press.
Van Bommel, M., van Prooijen, J.-W., Elffers, H., & Van Lange, P. A. M. (2012). Be aware to care: Public self-awareness leads to a reversal of the bystander effect. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(4), 926–930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.02.011
Van Dijk, E., & Zeelenberg, M. (2005). On the Psychology of “If Only”: Regret and the Comparison between Factual and Counterfactual Outcomes. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97, 152–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.04.001
Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 222–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984
You, L., & Lee, Y.-H. (2019). The Bystander Effect in Cyberbullying on Social Network Sites: Anonymity, Group Size, and Intervention Intentions. Telematics and Informatics, 101284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2019.101284
Zalaquett, C. P., & Chatters, S. J. (2014). Cyberbullying in college: frequency, characteristics, and practical implications. Sage Open, 4(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014526721