本文以資本主義的過渡期作為撰寫的時代背景，介在數位化與監控化的時代，正是競爭法制的極限時刻。資本主義發展這300年來，伴隨每次爆炸性的工業革命與科技進步，便會帶動整體商業模式的變革與資本累積邏輯的創新。本文擬從歷史脈絡分析從18世紀以降，以歐美為首的資本主義市場在社會、經濟、法律與政治因子下，與競爭理論之間互為幫襯、互為因果的關係。迄今為止，第三次工業革命進入到數位資本主義時代，大型數位平台成為全球市值前五大企業，數據資本的經濟性格在網路效應、學習效應與規模經濟等幫襯下，民眾以無償的使用數據換取零取價的服務，不知不覺中，我們成為科技巨頭的生財工具，逐步將人類推向監控資本主義。
為今之計，競爭法執法或許是阻擋巨頭入侵的盾牌，但在新自由主義與芝加哥學派的歷史遺緒下，新布蘭迪斯學派身為擴權反托拉斯法的倡議者，兩者競爭觀的衝突與矛盾便是本文討論的核心。芝加哥學派長期掌握美國反托拉斯法執法的話語權，但本文在第三章案例分析當中，特別在Facebook/WhatsApp案援引FTC在今年8月的原告訴狀，由其新布蘭迪斯學派的代表學者Lina Khan主筆，也同時表現出數位與監控資本主義的變革。最後，歐美兩地是資本主義的發源地，同時也是造就數位巨頭的培養皿，無論競爭法的歷史長河當中，歐美之間曾有過多少分治分野，現今都已意識到監控資本主義所引發的社會問題，也亟待兩地的政府處理。本文分析的兩部草案—歐盟的數位服務法與數位市場法、美國的反壟斷五大草案，皆是為了列管數位大型平台的限制競爭行為而量身打造。草案目前還未實施，大家都仍是摸著石頭過河，但期許可以逐步維穩監控資本主義下的社會發展並持續推進科技進步。

Between the era of digital and surveillance capitalism, it’s the liminal moment for competition law. In the past 300 years of capitalism history, new business models and the logic of capital accumulation are transformed with explosively technological progress and the industrial revolution. This thesis aims at analyzing the interaction between the historical background of society, economy, law, and politics and the competitive theories, which are one of the essential concepts to create a capital market led by Europe and American. At the end of 20 century, the third industrial revolution stepped into the period of digital capitalism. From now on, the large digital platforms are representative of the top five enterprises around the world, and even manipulate the valuable data capital by harnessing the network effect, learning effect, and economies of scale. People pay for the zero-cost services with endless personal data. We are exploited by the big tech and driven to surveillance capitalism without any consciousness.
In this scenario, there is no doubt that the competition law is one of the tools to address the problems caused by big tech. However, in the U.S, the Chicago School and neo-liberalism hobble antitrust law and policy on maintaining the equilibrium platform market. On the flip side, the new-Brandeis school promote a new wave of antitrust movement to reform the existing regulatory and against the Chicago School which is in power in the field of competition law substantially. After recognizing the problems brought by big tech, America seems to start to adjust its competitive policy. In chapter three, a study of the Facebook/WhatsApp merger case, the thesis refers to the complainant submitted to the district court in August by FTC, which extraordinarily indicates the transformation between digital and surveillance capitalism. In the last chapter, we illustrate both Europe and America are the birthplace of capitalism and the cradle of big tech, but the social problems caused by surveillance capitalism are the toughest for both either. However, this thesis shows how the EU and U.S are pioneering to reframe the regulatory which tailored to the competitive behaviors of very large digital platforms and trying to balance the technological advance and social problems.

第一章 緒論 6
第一節 研究動機與目的 6
第二節 研究方法 11
一、 文獻分析法 11
二、 案例分析法 11
三、 政策方向比較分析法 11
第三節 研究限制 12
第四節 文獻回顧 12
一、 資本主義發展沿革 13
二、 競爭概念的闡述及歷史脈絡 13
第二章 資本主義理論下競爭法制之建構 15
第一節 資本主義下競爭法制之發展沿革 17
一、 第一次工業革命—古典經濟學派的競爭概念 17
二、 資本主義的批判—卡爾·馬克思的經濟理論與競爭觀 19
三、 第二次工業革命—美國的托拉斯運動與反托拉斯革命 22
（一） 經濟危機中分權與極權的選擇 22
（二） 古典經濟學派與新古典經濟學派的競爭觀 24
四、 戰間期至二戰後的經濟政策—哈佛結構學派的管制架構 25
（一） 美國反壟斷革命的高峰 25
（二） 歐洲排拒極權政治與集中經濟之民主價值 27
五、 新自由主義崛起—芝加哥學派的自由放任市場 29
（一） 二戰後美國經濟衰退潮—新自由主義崛起 29
（二） 古典經濟學主政—芝加哥學派 30
六、 第三次工業革命—數位資本主義 32
（一） 美國科技巨頭誕生與反托拉斯法失靈 32
（二） 歐洲在數位市場與美國分歧的選擇 34
1. 美歐競爭概念假設與原則之差異 35
2. 美歐間數位主權的角力 36
3. 美歐分治的政治遊說文化 37
（三） 數位的下一步？監控資本主義時代？ 39
第二節 「監控資本主義時代」—背景、理論與競爭觀 39
一、 「監控資本主義」之社會背景 42
（一） 社會理論分析—社會分工理論 42
1. 20世紀資本主義演化動能—涂爾幹的社會分工理論 42
2. 21世紀監控資本主義的核心—社會學習分化 44
（二） 多重因素構築監控資本主義生態系 46
1. 法律—中介平台的免死金牌 46
2. 政治—政府的選擇性親和 46
3. 與歷來資本主義社會的差異 47
二、 「監控資本主義」商業模式及立論基礎 48
（一） 資訊抽取指令 49
（二） 預測指令 50
三、 「監控資本主義」下之競爭法制 50
（一） 「監控資本主義」下競爭政策的辯論 51
（二） 競爭法規與競爭政策的新紀元 54
第三章 數據驅動市場下的競爭法實務—挑戰與蛻變 56
第一節 挑戰既有競爭法—形塑新形態數據驅動市場 57
一、 數據驅動市場的關鍵資本—數據 57
（一） 數據之定義與特性 57
（二） 數據之分類 59
1. 以法律管制架構區分：個人資料與非個人資料 59
2. 以數據來源區分：自願、觀察、推論數據 59
3. 以數位平台使用者產生的數據類型區分 60
4. 以匿名化程度區分 60
（三） 數據之市場競爭力性質 61
1. 排他性（exclusivity） 61
2. 學習效應（learning effects） 62
3. 網路互動（interaction on network） 62
4. 互補性資產（complementary assets） 62
5. 競爭性商業模式（competing business models） 63
二、 數據驅動市場的經濟主體—數位平台 63
（一） 數位平台之定義 63
（二） 數位平台之分類 64
1. 以平台的功能性區分 64
2. 以平台創造價值的方式區分 65
3. 以代表性服務類型區分 65
（三） 數位平台利用數據之市場特性 65
1. 規模經濟與範疇經濟(Economies of Scale and Scope) 66
2. 網路效應(network effects) 67
3. 端點補貼的平台商業模式(subsidisation across sides) 67
4. 生成、抓取與處理數據(data generation, capture, and processing) 68
5. 平台作為私人規範(private regulators) 69
第二節 蛻變中的競爭法實務—數據驅動市場爭議案例 71
一、 數位平台之市場力與市場獨占地位 72
（一） Google三案之案件概述 73
1. Google Search （Shopping） 73
2. Google Android 76
3. Google Search （AdSense） 78
（三） 案件分析 80
1. 監控資本主義下數據資本的經濟價值 80
2. 數位平台多重特性下的競爭衝突 82
3. 重新定位消費者福祉原則 84
4. 壟斷與創新：監控資本主義下失靈的破壞性創新 85
5. 重新審視反托拉斯法的立法目的與執法 86
二、 數位平台之事業結合行為 88
（一） 案件概述 89
1. 歐盟2014年與2017年Facebook/WhatsApp結合案 89
2. 美國2021年Facebook/WhatsApp結合案 92
（二） 案件分析 95
1. Facebook/WhatsApp合併案的獲益分析 96
2. 結合案中市場界定與市場力評估—數據整合與隱私 97
3. 壟斷數位市場，監控資本主義人民抗爭權遭否決 99
4. 事業結合與創新動能的消長 100
5. 美國反托拉斯訴訟的新頁 101
第三節 小結—數據驅動市場中競爭法制轉向 102
第四章 論「監控資本主義」下競爭法制之革新 105
第一節 革新既有競爭法制與重構市場競爭概念 105
一、 歐洲與美國競爭法制之革新 105
（一） 歐盟-數位服務法與數位市場法草案 105
1. 數位服務法（DSA） 106
2. 數位市場法（DMA） 108
（二） 美國-數位市場競爭法草案 110
二、 法規評析—競爭觀的重構與法制實務的扞格 111
（一） 重構消費者福祉原則及相關舉證責任 115
（二） 消費者行為經濟學—消費者擁抱壟斷？ 117
（三） 競爭法與數據保護法的交疊 119
（四） 重構數據市場中的創造性破壞 122
（五） 嶄新的競爭法分析工具與執法 124
（六） 水平結合的難題 127
第二節 我國公平交易法之契機與立法建議 128
第五章 結論 133
附件 137
附件一：數位服務法（DSA）草案 137
附件二：數位市場法（DMA）草案 143
附件三：美國反壟斷法五大草案 148
參考文獻 154
 

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【中文學位論文】
邱映曦（2019），〈競爭法的數位紀元－論數位平台資訊力對競爭法適用之影響〉，《國立政治大學法律學系博士學位論文》。

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43. Michael D. Birnhack and Niva Elkin-Koren, The Invisible Handshake: The Reemergence of the State in the Digital Environment., 8 Va.J.L. & Tech 6, 1 (2003).
44. Nikolas Guggenberger, Essential Platforms., Stan. Tech. L. Rev. 24, 237 (2021).
45. Rainer Wessely, Anti-American Bias? Or Sound European Competition Law Enforcement?, Antitrust, Fall 2019, 90 (2019).
46. Rob Frieden, The Internet of Platforms and Two-Sided Markets: Implications for Competition and Consumers, Vill. L. Rev. 63, 269 (2018).
47. Salil K. Mehra, Data Privacy and Antitrust in Comparative Perspective., Cornell Int'l LJ 53, 133 (2020).
48. Sandeep Vaheesan and Nathan Schneider, Cooperative Enterprise as an Antimonopoly Strategy., Penn St. L. Rev.124, 1 (2019).
49. Sarah Myers West, Data capitalism: Redefining the logics of surveillance and privacy, Business & society 58.1, 20 (2019).
50. Tim Wu, Blind spot: The attention economy and the law., Antitrust Law Journal 82.3, 771 (2017).
51. William E. Kovacic, The Antitrust Paradox Revisited: Robert Bork and The Transformation of Modern Antitrust Policy., Wayne L. Rev. 36, 1413 (1989).


【國際組織報告】
1. ACCC, “Digital platforms inquiry - final report” (2019) .
2. Atlantic Council, “The European Union and the Search for Digital Sovereignty” (2020) .
3. CMA, “Online Platforms and Digital Advertising Market Study” (2020) .
4. DIGITALEUROPE, “Digital Services Act consultation response” (2020) .
5. EC and VVA, “Study on data in platform-to-business relations” (2017) .
6. EC, “Competition policy for the digital era” (2019) .
7. EC, “Expert Group for the EU Observatory on the Online Platform Economy Final reports” (2021) .
8. EC, “Online Platforms Accompanying the document Communication on Online Platforms and the Digital Single Market” (2016) .
9. EC, “The EU Digital Markets Act: A Report from a Panel of Economic Experts” (2021) .
10. EC JRC, “The EU Digital Markets Act A Report from a Panel of Economic Experts” (2021) ."
11. ECORYS, “Big Data and Competition” (2017) .
12. EPRS, “Online platforms: Economic and societal effects” (2021) .
13. EU Science Hub, “The Competitive Landscape of Online Platforms” (2017) .
14. JFTC, “Report of Study Group on Data and Competition Policy” (2017) .
15. OECD, “ Enhancing Access to and Sharing of Data_Reconciling Risks and Benefits for Data Re-use across Societies” (2019) .
16. OECD, “Big Data: Bringing Competition Policy To The Digital Era” (2016) .
17. OECD, “Data-Driven Innovation For Growth And Well-Being Interim Synthesis Report” (2014) .
18. OECD, “Rethinking Antitrust Tools for Multi-Sided Platforms 2018” (2018) .
19. PWC, “Global Top 100 Companies By Market Capitalisation” (2020) .
20. Stigler Center, “Stigler Committee on Digital Platforms: Final Report” (2019) .
21. U.S House of representatives, “Investigation of Competition in Digital Markets” (2020) .
22. UNCTAD, “What Is At Stake For Developing Countries In Trade Negotiations On E-commerce” (2021) .
23. World Economic Forum, “Personal Data: The Emergence of a New Asset Class” (2012) .

【英文網路期刊】
1. Aurelien Portuese, “Principles of Dynamic Antitrust: Competing Through Innovation” (Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, 2021) .
2. Aurelien Portuese, “The Digital Markets Act: European Precautionary Antitrust” (Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, 2021) .
3. David Dayen, “The Android Administration: Google's Remarkably Close Relationship With the ObamaWhite House, in Two Charts” (The Intercept, 2016) .
4. Marcin Szczepański, “Margrethe Vestager Vice-President: A Europe fit for the digital age” (European Parliamentary Research Service, 2019) .
5. Marcus Thompson, “Government needs to ensure Australia’s digital sovereignty” (THE STRATEGIST, 2021) .
6. Meredith Broadbent, “The Digital Services Act, the Digital Markets Act, and the new competition tool.” (Analysis & Policy Observatory, 2020) .
7. Oracle, “The Rise of Data Capital” (MIT Technology Review Insights, 2016) .
8. Perry Rotella, “Is Data the New Oil?” (FORBES, 2012) .
9. Robert Reich, “Break up Facebook (and while we're at it, Google, Apple and Amazon)” (the Guardian Opinion, 2018) .
10. Tambiama André MADIEGA, “Digital sovereignty for Europe” (European Parliament Think Tank, 2020) <http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2020/651992/EPRS_BRI(2020)651992_EN.pdf>.
11. Tara Suter, “Google on track to surpass 2020 lobbying following lawsuit pressure from Biden admin” (OpenSecrets, 2021) .

【英文網頁資料】
1. EU2020.de, “Expanding the EU's Digital Sovereignty”, available at: https://www.eu2020.de/eu2020-en/eu-digitalisation-technology-sovereignty/2352828.
2. European Commission, “A Europe fit for the digital age”, available at: https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/europe-fit-digital-age_en.
3. European Commission, “Digital Services Act package – ex ante regulatory instrument of very large online platforms acting as gatekeepers”, available at: https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/better-regulation/have-your-say/initiatives/12418-Digital-Services-Act-package-ex-ante-regulatory-instrument-of-very-large-online-platforms-acting-as-gatekeepers_zh.
4. European Commission, “Practical guidance for businesses on how to process mixed datasets”, available at: Practical guidance for businesses on how to process mixed datasets | Shaping Europe’s digital future (europa.eu).
5. European Commission, “Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Citizens' Initiative”, available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52017PC0482.
6. European Commission, “The Digital Markets Act: ensuring fair and open digital markets”, available at: https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/europe-fit-digital-age/digital-markets-act-ensuring-fair-and-open-digital-markets_en.
7. Facebook Newsroom, “Facebook to Acquire WhatsApp”, available at: https://about.fb.com/news/2014/02/facebook-to-acquire-whatsapp/.
8. LobbyFacts, “Facebook Ireland Limited (FB-I)”, available at: https://lobbyfacts.eu/representative/64755e0fc2a14e46aa9d8646df6f8f19/facebook-ireland-limited.
9. OpenSecrets, “Client Profile: Facebook Inc”, available at: https://www.opensecrets.org/federal-lobbying/clients/summary?cycle=2020&id=D000033563.
10. OpenSecrets, “Industry Profile: Internet”, available at: https://www.opensecrets.org/federal-lobbying/industries/summary?cycle=2021&id=B13&__cf_chl_captcha_tk__=pmd_5h6ol17.Snr9wFSBL8wCn.IUvUQNceDM6dgMuip3L8E-1633314006-0-gqNtZGzNAzujcnBszQh9.
11. PWC, “Global Top 100 companies by market capitalisation”, available at: https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/audit-services/publications/assets/global-top-100-companies-june-2020-update.pdf.
12. Shoshana Zuboff, “Introduction”, available at: https://shoshanazuboff.com/Book/Shoshana/.
13. Statista, “Desktop PC OS market share 2013-2020”, available at: Https://Www.Statista.Com/Statistics/218089/Global-Market-Share-Of-Windows-7/.
14. Statista, “Global market share of search engines 2010-2021”, available at: Https://Www.Statista.Com/Statistics/216573/Worldwide-Market-Share-Of-Search-Engines/#:~:Text=Ever%20since%20the%20introduction%20of,Revenues%20are%20generated%20through%20advertising..
15. Statista, “U.S. Amazon retail e-commerce GMV share 2016-2021”, available at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/788109/amazon-retail-market-share-usa/.
16. Statista, “U.S. market share of leading social media websites 2021”, available at: Https://Www.Statista.Com/Statistics/265773/Market-Share-Of-The-Most-Popular-Social-Media-Websites-In-The-Us/#:~:Text=Market%20leader%20facebook%20accounted%20for,U.S.%20social%20media%20site%20visits..
17. The Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, “UNITED STATES–MEXICO–CANADA TRADE FACT SHEET Modernizing NAFTA into a 21st Century Trade Agreement”, available at: https://ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/united-states-mexico-canada-agreement/fact-sheets/modernizing.
18. THE WHITE HOUSE, “Executive Order on Promoting Competition in the American Economy”, available at: https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/07/09/executive-order-on-promoting-competition-in-the-american-economy/.
19. U.S House of Representatives Judicial committee, “Antitrust Investigation of the Rise and Use of Market Power Online and the Adequacy of Existing Antitrust Laws and Current Enforcement Levels”, available at: https://judiciary.house.gov/issues/issue/?IssueID=14921.
20. Unbuilt Labs, “The New Brandeis Ideology (mid 2010s – Present): On the Dangers of Monopoly Power”, available at: https://unbuiltlabs.com/2021/01/05/the-new-brandeis-ideology-mid-2010s-present-on-the-dangers-of-monopoly-power/.

【中文網路新聞】
1. 數位時代（12/15/2020），〈【更新】Google大當機讓全球哀嚎，Gmail、YouTube都出槌！官方說明原因〉，https://www.bnext.com.tw/article/60524/google-crash-2020。
2. 自由財經（04/06/2021），〈打破數位壟斷 公平會將提政策白皮書〉，https://ec.ltn.com.tw/article/paper/1441449。
3. 國家市場監督管理總局（02/07/2021），〈國務院反壟斷委員會關於平台經濟領域的反壟斷指南〉，http://gkml.samr.gov.cn/nsjg/fldj/202102/t20210207_325967.html。
4. 中央廣播電台（09/14/2021），〈濫用市場支配地位 谷歌遭南韓罰款1.77億美元〉，https://www.rti.org.tw/news/view/id/2111300。

【英文網路新聞】
1. BBC (06/05/2021), “Facebook suspends Trump accounts for two years”, available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-57365628.
2. CNBC (09/02/2021), “WhatsApp is fined $267 million for breaching EU privacy rules”, available at: https://www.cnbc.com/2021/09/02/whatsapp-has-been-fined-267-million-for-breaching-eu-privacy-rules.html.
3. CNN (10/10/2020), “Facebook must be broken up, the US government says in a groundbreaking lawsuit”, available at: https://edition.cnn.com/2020/12/09/tech/facebook-antitrust-lawsuit-ftc-attorney-generals/index.html.
4. Electronic Frontier Foundation (09/08/2020), “Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act”, available at: https://www.eff.org/issues/cda230.
5. Electronic Privacy Information Center (06/18/2010), “Investigations of Google Street View”, available at: https://epic.org/privacy/streetview/.
6. European Commission (06/04/2021), “Antitrust: Commission opens investigation into possible anticompetitive conduct of Facebook”, available at: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_2848.
7. European Commission (06/22/2021), “Antitrust: Commission opens investigation into possible anticompetitive conduct by Google in the online advertising technology sector”, available at: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_3143.
8. European Commission (12/15/2020), “Europe Fit For The Digital Age: Commission Proposes New Rules For Digital Platforms”, available at: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_20_2347.
9. Federal Trade Commission (02/11/2020), “FTC to Examine Past Acquisitions by Large Technology Companies”, available at: https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2020/02/ftc-examine-past-acquisitions-large-technology-companies.
10. Independent Online(IOL) (09/28/2018), “WhatsApp co-founder admits to selling users' privacy' after sale to Facebook”, available at: https://www.iol.co.za/business-report/companies/whatsapp-co-founder-admits-to-selling-users-privacy-after-sale-to-facebook-17244556.
11. INSIDER (06/12/2021), “Congress unveils 5 bipartisan bills that mark its biggest step yet in regulating tech giants like Amazon, Google, Facebook, and Apple”, available at: https://www.businessinsider.com/congress-big-tech-bills-facebook-google-apple-amazon-antitrust-2021-6.
12. OPELIKA-AUBURN NEWS (06/14/2021), “Trump supporters retaliate by boycotting Facebook for 24 hours”, available at: https://oanow.com/news/local/govt-and-politics/trump-supporters-retaliate-by-boycotting-facebook-for-24-hours/article_6b76bfb0-56ba-11eb-87af-47b69896b1c8.html.
13. REUTERS (06/25/2021), “U.S. panel votes yes on 'break 'em up' antitrust bill”, available at: https://www.reuters.com/technology/us-panel-approves-five-antitrust-bills-break-em-up-bill-up-next-2021-06-24/.
14. the Guardian (04/16/2012), “Google fined by FCC over Street View”, available at: https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2012/apr/16/google-fined-fcc-street-view.
15. The New York Time (04/22/2013), “Germany Fines Google Over Data Collection”, available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/23/technology/germany-fines-google-over-data-collection.html.
16. The New York Time (06/04/2010), “Google to Give Governments Street View Data”, available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/04/business/global/04google.html.
17. The New York Time (07/28/2021), “States say they will appeal the dismissal of their Facebook antitrust suit”, available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/28/technology/state-facebook-antitrust-lawsuit.html?searchResultPosition=1.
18. THE VERGE (08/19/2021), “FTC says Facebook has been a monopoly ‘since at least 2011’ in amended antitrust complaint”, available at: https://www.theverge.com/2021/8/19/22627032/ftc-facebook-amended-antitrust-complaint-monopoly-instagram-whatsapp.
19. The Wall Street Journal (04/06/2021), “Amazon Surpasses 10% of U.S. Digital Ad Market Share”, available at: https://www.wsj.com/articles/amazon-surpasses-10-of-u-s-digital-ad-market-share-11617703200.
20. The Wall Street Journal (04/06/2021), “Amazon Surpasses 10% of U.S. Digital Ad Market Share”, available at: https://www.wsj.com/articles/amazon-surpasses-10-of-u-s-digital-ad-market-share-11617703200.
21. The Wall Street Journal (10/20/2020), “Justice Department Hits Google With Antitrust Lawsuit”, available at: https://www.wsj.com/articles/justice-department-to-file-long-awaited-antitrust-suit-against-google-11603195203?mod=article_inline.
22. The Wall Street Journal (12/09/2020), “Facebook Hit With Antitrust Lawsuits by FTC, State Attorneys General”, available at: https://www.wsj.com/articles/facebook-hit-with-antitrust-lawsuit-by-federal-trade-commission-state-attorneys-general-11607543139?mod=article_inline.
23. The Washington Post (09/10/2021), “Rulings in Facebook, Apple antitrust cases show how tough it is to define a monopoly in the age of Big Tech”, available at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/09/10/gonzale-zrogers-epic-apple-facebook-bigtech-monopoly/.
24. WIRED (05/25/2021), “A New Antitrust Case Cuts to the Core of Amazon’s Identity”, available at: https://www.wired.com/story/amazon-antitrust-lawsuit-cuts-to-core-of-identity/.
25. WIRED (06/29/2021), “Actually, the Antitrust Case Against Facebook Is Very Much Alive”, available at: https://www.wired.com/story/ftc-antitrust-case-against-facebook-very-much-alive/.