本文旨在研究西南官話中的流音，通過電磁構音儀（EMA）和超音波從構音的角度探索流音的發音特點。在西南官話中有兩個流音，一個是只能出現在音節尾與韻核的r音（兒尾、捲舌元音），另一個是只能出現在音節首的邊音l。
我們收集了13個西南官話母語者的兒化構音語料，發現西南官話中的兒化音是一個捲舌元音（rhotic schwa）。兒尾有三個主要的構音特點：第一，在我們的語料中，所有西南官話中的兒尾的舌形都是拱起的（bunched），在我們的兒化語料中，我們沒有發現舌尖向上的舌形；第二，在西南官話的兒化音的發音中，舌前是主要的發音部位，舌後沒有後退的動作，嘴唇也沒有圓唇的動作；第三，在西南官話中，不管是從聲學的角度，還是從構音的角度看，兒尾（如，把把兒）與捲舌元音（如，兒、耳）是不同的，即使他們在聽覺上無法區別。
此外，在西南官話中，邊音l只能出現在音節首的位置，所以沒有英文中邊音的“明vs.暗”之分，我們因此推斷西南官話邊音的發音可能具有跟英文不同的特點。我們收集了8個西南官話母語者的構音語料，結果表明西南官話中的邊音發音，在正中橫切面包含舌尖抬起和舌後往前的動作，其中舌尖是最主要的發音器官。除此之外，與英文中的邊音發音不同的是，西南官話的邊音發音沒有舌根後退的動作。同樣地，西南官話邊音發音在橫切面上也有其獨特之處：舌側兩邊可以是抬起、下降，或是保持平面，這與文獻中所記載的英文邊音發音不同，一般認為邊音的發音包含舌側兩邊下降，或單側傾斜的動作。最後，我們認為西南官話l~n 合流的現象很可能正是因為邊音發音時舌側不一定會降低有關。
本論文記錄並分析了西南官話流音的構音動態，希望能對不同官話方言的語音描寫有所貢獻。

This dissertation investigates the articulatory characteristics of liquids in Southwestern Mandarin (SWM) using Electromagnetic Articulography (EMA) and ultrasound imaging. In SWM, liquids consist of an r-sound and an l-sound, with the r-sound exclusively occurring in the syllable-final position (i.e., the er-suffix and the phonemic er), while the l-sound appears solely in the syllable initial position (i.e., onset l).
Articulatory data collected from 13 speakers reveal that the er-suffix in SWM is a rhotic schwa. The er-suffix exhibits three key articulatory features: firstly, all speakers consistently produce the er-suffix with a bunched tongue posture, and retroflexion is consistently absent throughout the dataset; secondly, pharyngeal retraction and lip rounding do not play a role in the production of the er-suffix; thirdly, articulatorily or acoustically, the er-suffix is distinguishable from the phonemic er.
On the contrary, the lateral approximant is only conceivable in prevocalic positions, with no "light vs. dark" distinction, indicating the absence of certain aspects of /l/-production found in English within SWM. Articulatory data from 8 speakers indicate that l-production in SWM involves Tongue Tip (TT) raising and Tongue Dorsum (TD) fronting in the mid-sagittal plane, with TT raising being the predominant gesture. Unlike its counterpart in English, TD retraction is absent in SWM l-production. Similarly, the behavior of the tongue blade in the para-sagittal plane is unique in SWM, as the tongue blade can be raised, lowered, or nearly flat, differing from the lowered tongue blade involved in l-production in English. Consequently, we propose that the variation of the coronal tongue shape triggers the ongoing l~n merger in SWM. This research constitutes an addition to a growing body of work dedicated to the phonetic characterization of various Mandarin dialects, offering the subtle phonetic distinctions that uniquely define each one.

摘要 i
Abstract ii
Acknowledgment iii
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1. Goals and Overview 1
1.2. Language and background 2
1.2.1. Language background 2
1.2.2. The sound system 4
1.3. Research questions 7
1.4. Organization of the dissertation 11
Chapter 2 Literature Review 13
2.1. Literature review on the er-suffixation 13
2.1.1. A review of previous work on phonological interpretation of the er-suffix in Beijing Mandarin or Standard Chinese 15
2.1.2. A review of previous work on the acoustic analysis of the er-suffix on Beijing Mandarin or Standard Chinese 18
2.1.3. A review of previous work on the articulatory study of the er-suffix 21
2.1.4. A review of previous work on the articulatory study of the r-colored sound in other languages 26
2.1.5. Summary 29
2.2. Literature review on the /l/ production and the l~n merger issue 30
2.2.1. A review of previous work on lateral sounds 30
2.2.2. A review of previous work on the l~n merger issue 39
2.2.3. Summary 43
Chapter 3 The rhotic sounds in Southwestern Mandarin 44
3.1. Introduction 44
3.2. Method 49
3.3. Analysis 55
3.4. Results 65
3.4.1. Visualized temporal changes of lingual configuration: stems vs. er-suffixes 65
3.4.2. Bunched configurations and Tongue Retroflexion Angle (RA) 73
3.4.3. Quantifying differences in articulatory trajectories using Generalized Additive Mixed Models (GAMMs) 76
3.4.3.1. The stems and the er-suffixes 77
3.4.3.2. The suffixes with different stems: “within-group” comparison 79
3.4.3.3. Lip rounding 84
3.4.4. Ultrasound results 86
3.4.5. Acoustic results 94
3.4.6. The phonemic er vs. the er-suffix 99
3.5. Discussion 106
3.5.1. How is the er-suffix realized in SWM? 106
3.5.2. The components of er-suffix 109
3.5.3. The inter-speaker consistency 111
3.6. Summary 114
Chapter 4 The lateral in SWM 116
4.1. Introduction 116
4.2. Method 117
4.3. Analysis 123
4.4. Results 129
4.4.1. Visualization of the EMA data 130
4.4.2. Components of /l/ production 139
4.4.3. Visualization of the ultrasound data in the coronal plane 141
4.4.4. The lateralization angle of the /l/ production 144
4.4.5. The l~n merger 148
4.5. Discussion 160
4.5.1. The lingual articulation of [l] production 161
4.5.2. The l~n merger 163
4.6. Summary 166
Chapter 5 Discussion 168
5.1. Summary of results 168
5.2. The r sound and l sound in SWM 172
Chapter 6 Conclusion 177
References 178
Appendix 196

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