在Λ-冷暗物質宇宙學典範下，宇宙中結構是以階層式形成。星系團最亮星系（Brightest cluster galaxies, 簡稱BCG）位於星系團的中心，正代表了此階層式結構形成的頂點。星系團最亮星系的性質與它們的星系團有強烈關聯，並且它們的形成過程很可能含有星系與星系團形成的重要限制條件。紅移小於0.5時，星系團最亮星系的恆星質量增長在觀測和模擬之間有差異。此研究旨在解決此差異。

我們藉由直接比較星系團最亮星系中心區域的多核率來解決這個差異。我們利用MaNGA計畫（Mapping Nearby Galaxies at APO, 簡稱MaNGA）所提供89個星系團最亮星系的空間解析光譜，以區分合併系統和視線方向隨機重疊的投影，並得到星系團最亮星系多核率之最具統計顯著性的成果。我們開發了一套程式以自動化偵測星系團最亮星系的核，並將此程式使用於最新最大的宇宙學流體動力學模擬IllustrisTNG的300^3立方百萬秒差距（Mpc^3）版本製成的擬真模擬影像。

我們從紅移為0.06-0.15的體積限制樣本（volume-limited sample）測得觀測多核率為0.097±0.036，並從218個模擬的星系團最亮星系測得多核率為0.066±0.018。

我們的觀測結果與模擬結果只有一個標準差的差異。我們還發現多核通常實際上和星系團最亮星系有關聯，而非隨機的重疊投影。將來我們的自動化程式可應用在對於星系團最亮星系的更深影像巡天計畫和更多樣本的無狹縫光譜巡天計畫。

In the ΛCDM cosmological paradigm, structures form hierarchically. Brightest cluster galaxies (BCGs) are located at the center of galaxy clusters, which represent the culmination of this formation. The properties of BCGs are strongly connected with their host clusters, and their growth paths potentially contain important constraints on cluster and galaxy formation. This work aims to solve the discrepancy between observation and simulation on the stellar mass growth of BCGs at z < 0.5.

We tackle this discrepancy by directly comparing the multiple-core frequency (a proxy for merger rate) in the inner regions of BCGs. We take advantage of the spatially resolved spectroscopy of 89 BCGs from Mapping Nearby Galaxies at APO (MaNGA) to distinguish merging systems from chance projections, and present the result of the first IFU survey of the multiple-core frequency of BCGs. We develop a pipeline to automatically detect cores and apply it to realistic synthetic images based on the (300 Mpc)^3 volume version of the cosmological hydrodynamical simulation IllustrisTNG.

We obtain an observational multiple-core frequency of 0.097±0.036 from a volume-limited sample at z = 0.06-0.15, and a multiple-core frequency of 0.066±0.018 from 218 simulated BCGs.

Our observation results show only a 1 sigma discrepancy from a leading hydrodynamical simulation. We also find multiple cores are most often associated with their BCGs rather than chance projections. In the future, our pipeline can be applied to data from deeper imaging surveys and larger slitless spectroscopy surveys of BCGs.

Abstract (Chinese) I
Abstract II
Acknowledgements III
Contents VI
List of Figures IX
List of Tables XVII
1 Introduction 1
1.1 A distinct galaxy population: brightest cluster galaxies (BCGs) . . 1
1.2 A discrepancy in BCG stellar mass growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Multiple-core frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 The structure of this work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 An IFU Survey of Multiple-core Frequency of Brightest Cluster
Galaxies 7
2.1 The Galaxy and Cluster Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.1 The Cluster Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.2 Identication of BCGs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.3 Photometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.4 Maximum projected distance and IFU Coverage . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.1 Analysis Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.2 Identifying Multiple-cores in Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.3 Identifying Merging Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.4 Flux Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.5 Volume-limited sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3 Multiple-core Frequency of Brightest Cluster Galaxies in TNG300 27
3.1 The Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 The Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2.1 Synthetic Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2.2 Photometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2.3 Identifying Multiple-cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2.4 Flux Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4 Conclusion and Prospects 38
Appendices 40
A Sample Selection 41
A.1 Unbiased selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
A.2 Excluded objects and systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
A.2.1 Excluded objects in the observational sample at the BCG identification stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
A.2.2 Excluded objects in the observational sample due to image quality issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
A.2.3 Excluded objects in the simulated sample . . . . . . . . . . . 53
B Notable objects 56
B.1 Notable objects in the observational sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
B.2 Notable objects in the simulated sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
C Consistency of Photometry between Ellipse and PyMorph 60
D Tables of the BCGs and the detected cores 68

Abazajian, K. N., Adelman-McCarthy, J. K., Agueros, M. A., Allam, S. S., Prieto,
C. A., An, D., Anderson, K. S. J., Anderson, S. F., Annis, J., Bahcall,
N. A., Bailer-Jones, C. A. L., Barentine, J. C., Bassett, B. A., Becker,
A. C., Beers, T. C., Bell, E. F., Belokurov, V., Berlind, A. A., Berman,
E. F., . . . Zucker, D. B. (2009). The Seventh Data Release of the Sloan
Digital Sky Survey. The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 182 (2),
543{558. https://doi.org/10.1088/0067-0049/182/2/543
Aihara, H., AlSayyad, Y., Ando, M., Armstrong, R., Bosch, J., Egami, E., Furusawa,
H., Furusawa, J., Goulding, A., Harikane, Y., Hikage, C., Ho, P. T. P.,
Hsieh, B.-C., Huang, S., Ikeda, H., Imanishi, M., Ito, K., Iwata, I., Jaelani,
A. T., . . . Yamada, Y. (2019). Second data release of the Hyper Suprime-
Cam Subaru Strategic Program. PASJ, 71 (6), 114. https://doi.org/10.
1093/PASJ/PSZ103
Alam, S., Albareti, F. D., Prieto, C. A., Anders, F., Anderson, S. F., Andrews,
B. H., Armengaud, E., Aubourg, E., Bailey, S., Bautista, J. E., Beaton,
R. L., Beers, T. C., Bender, C. F., Berlind, A. A., Beutler, F., Bhardwaj,
V., Bird, J. C., Bizyaev, D., Blake, C. H., . . . Zou, H. (2015). The Eleventh
and Twelfth Data Releases of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey: Final Data
from SDSS-III. Astrophysical Journal, Supplement Series, 219 (1). https :
//doi.org/10.1088/0067-0049/219/1/12
Banks, K., Brough, S., Holwerda, B., Hopkins, A., Lopez-Sanchez, A., Phillipps,
S., Pimbblet, K., & Robotham, A. (2021). Galaxy And Mass Assembly
(GAMA) Survey: The Merging Potential of Brightest Group Galaxies. https:
//arxiv.org/abs/2108.05923v1
Barbary, K. (2016). SEP: Source Extractor as a library. The Journal of Open
Source Software, 1 (6), 58. https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.00058
Baugh, C. M. (2006). A primer on hierarchical galaxy formation: The semi-analytical
approach. https://doi.org/10.1088/0034-4885/69/12/R02
Bernardi, M., Fischer, J. L., Sheth, R. K., Meert, A., Huertas-Company, M.,
Shankar, F., & Vikram, V. (2017). Comparing PYMORPH and SDSS photometry
- II. The dierences are more than semantics and are not dominated
by intracluster light. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society,
468 (3), 2569{2581. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stx677
Bertin, E., & Arnouts, S. (1996). SExtractor: Software for source extraction. As-
tronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series, 117 (2). https://doi.org/10.
1051/aas:1996164
Blanton, M. R., Bershady, M. A., Abolfathi, B., Albareti, F. D., Prieto, C. A.,
Almeida, A., Alonso-Garca, J., Anders, F., Anderson, S. F., Andrews, B.,
Aquino-Ortz, E., Aragon-Salamanca, A., Argudo-Fernandez, M., Armengaud,
E., Aubourg, E., Avila-Reese, V., Badenes, C., Bailey, S., Barger,
K. A., . . . Zou, H. (2017). Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV: Mapping the Milky
Way, Nearby Galaxies, and the Distant Universe. The Astronomical Jour-
nal, 154 (1), 28. https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-3881/aa7567
Blanton, M. R., Dalcanton, J., Eisenstein, D., Loveday, J., Strauss, M. A., SubbaRao,
M., Weinberg, D. H., Anderson, J., John E., Annis, J., Bahcall,
N. A., Bernardi, M., Brinkmann, J., Brunner, R. J., Burles, S., Carey, L.,
Castander, F. J., Connolly, A. J., Csabai, I., Doi, M., . . . York, D. G. (2001).
The Luminosity Function of Galaxies in SDSS Commissioning Data. AJ,
121 (5), 2358{2380. https://doi.org/10.1086/320405
Brough, S., Tran, K.-V., Sharp, R. G., von der Linden, A., & Couch, W. J. (2011).
Spatial kinematics of Brightest Cluster Galaxies and their close companions
from Integral Field Unit spectroscopy. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro-
nomical Society: Letters, 414 (1), L80{L84. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-
3933.2011.01060.x
Brown, A. G. A., Vallenari, A., Prusti, T., de Bruijne, J. H. J., Babusiaux, C.,
Biermann, M., Creevey, O. L., Evans, D. W., Eyer, L., Hutton, A., Jansen,
F., Jordi, C., Klioner, S. A., Lammers, U., Lindegren, L., Luri, X., Mignard,
F., Panem, C., Pourbaix, D., . . . Zwitter, T. (2021). Gaia Early Data Release
3 - Summary of the contents and survey properties. Astronomy &
Astrophysics, 649, A1. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202039657
Bruzual, G., & Charlot, S. (2003). Stellar population synthesis at the resolution
of 2003. MNRAS, 344 (4), 1000{1028. https://doi.org/10.1046/J.1365-
8711.2003.06897.X
Bundy, K., Bershady, M. A., Law, D. R., Yan, R., Drory, N., MacDonald, N.,Wake,
D. A., Cherinka, B., Sanchez-Gallego, J. R., Weijmans, A.-M., Thomas, D.,
Tremonti, C., Masters, K., Coccato, L., Diamond-Stanic, A. M., Aragon-
Salamanca, A., Avila-Reese, V., Badenes, C., Falcon-Barroso, J., . . . Zhang,
K. (2014). Overview of the SDSS-IV MaNGA Survey: Mapping Nearby
Galaxies at Apache Point Observatory. The Astrophysical Journal, 798 (1),
7. https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/798/1/7
Burke, C., & Collins, C. A. (2013). Growth of brightest cluster galaxies via mergers
since z=1. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 434 (4),
2856{2865. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stt1192
Cherinka, B., Andrews, B. H., Sanchez-Gallego, J., Brownstein, J., Argudo-Fernandez,
M., Blanton, M., Bundy, K., Jones, A., Masters, K., Law, D. R., Rowlands,
K., Weijmans, A. M., Westfall, K., & Yan, R. (2018). Marvin: A toolkit
for streamlined access and visualization of the SDSS-IV MaNGA data set.
https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-3881/ab2634
Cowie, L. L., & Binney, J. (1977). Radiative regulation of gas
ow within clusters
of galaxies - A model for cluster X-ray sources. The Astrophysical Journal,
215, 723. https://doi.org/10.1086/155406
Coziol, R., Andernach, H., Caretta, C. A., Alamo-Martnez, K. A., & Tago, E.
(2009). The dynamical state of brightest cluster galaxies and the formation
of clusters. Astronomical Journal, 137 (6), 4795{4809. https://doi.org/10.
1088/0004-6256/137/6/4795
Dalal, R., Strauss, M. A., Sunayama, T., Oguri, M., Lin, Y.-T., Huang, S., Park,
Y., Takada, M., Dalal, R., Strauss, M. A., Sunayama, T., Oguri, M., Lin,
Y.-T., Huang, S., Park, Y., & Takada, M. (2021). Brightest cluster galaxies
are statistically special from z = 0.3 to z = 1. MNRAS, 507 (3), 4016{4029.
https://doi.org/10.1093/MNRAS/STAB2363
De Lucia, G., & Blaizot, J. (2007). The hierarchical formation of the brightest
cluster galaxies. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 375 (1),
2{14. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.11287.x
Drory, N., MacDonald, N., Bershady, M. A., Bundy, K., Gunn, J., Law, D. R.,
Smith, M., Stoll, R., Tremonti, C. A., Wake, D. A., Yan, R., Weijmans,
A. M., Byler, N., Cherinka, B., Cope, F., Eigenbrot, A., Harding, P., Holder,
D., Huehnerho, J., . . . Sayres, C. (2015). The MaNGA Integral Field Unit
Fiber Feed System for the Sloan 2.5 m Telescope. The Astronomical Jour-
nal, 149 (2), 77. https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-6256/149/2/77
Edwards, L. O., & Patton, D. R. (2012). Close companions to brightest cluster
galaxies: Support for minor mergers and downsizing. Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society, 425 (1), 287{295. https://doi.org/10.1111/
j.1365-2966.2012.21457.x
Fischer, J.-L., Domnguez Sanchez, H., & Bernardi, M. (2019). SDSS-IV MaNGA
PyMorph Photometric and Deep Learning Morphological Catalogues and
implications for bulge properties and stellar angular momentum. Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 483 (2), 2057{2077. https://doi.
org/10.1093/mnras/sty3135
Gao, L., Loeb, A., Peebles, P. J. E., White, S. D. M., & Jenkins, A. (2004).
Early Formation and Late Merging of the Giant Galaxies. The Astrophysical
Journal, 614 (1), 17{25. https://doi.org/10.1086/423444
Groenewald, D. N., Skelton, R. E., Gilbank, D. G., & Loubser, S. I. (2017). The
close pair fraction of BCGs since z = 0.5: Major mergers dominate recent
BCG stellar mass growth. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical So-
ciety, 467 (4), 4101{4117. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stx340
Guo, Q., White, S., Boylan-Kolchin, M., De Lucia, G., Kaumann, G., Lemson,
G., Li, C., Springel, V., Weinmann, S., Guo, Q., White, S., Boylan-Kolchin,
M., De Lucia, G., Kaumann, G., Lemson, G., Li, C., Springel, V., &
Weinmann, S. (2011). From dwarf spheroidals to cD galaxies: simulating
the galaxy population in a CDM cosmology. MNRAS, 413 (1), 101{131.
https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1365-2966.2010.18114.X
Huang, S., Ho, L. C., Peng, C. Y., Li, Z.-Y., Barth, A. J., Huang, S., Ho, L. C.,
Peng, C. Y., Li, Z.-Y., & Barth, A. J. (2013). The Carnegie-Irvine Galaxy
Survey. III. The Three-component Structure of Nearby Elliptical Galaxies.
ApJ, 766 (1), 47. https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/766/1/47
Huang, S., Ho, L. C., Peng, C. Y., Li, Z.-Y., Barth, A. J., Huang, S., Ho, L. C.,
Peng, C. Y., Li, Z.-Y., & Barth, A. J. (2016). The Carnegie-Irvine Galaxy
Survey. IV. A Method to Determine the Average Mass Ratio of Mergers
That Built Massive Elliptical Galaxies. ApJ, 821 (2), 114. https://doi.org/
10.3847/0004-637X/821/2/114
Huang, S., Leauthaud, A., Bradshaw, C., Hearin, A., Behroozi, P., Lange, J.,
Greene, J., DeRose, J., Speagle, J. S., & Xhakaj, E. (2021). The Outer
Stellar Mass of Massive Galaxies: A Simple Tracer of Halo Mass with Scatter
Comparable to Richness and Reduced Projection Eects. http://arxiv.org/
abs/2109.02646
Inagaki, T., Lin, Y. T., Huang, H. J., Hsieh, B. C., & Sugiyama, N. (2015). Stellar
mass assembly of brightest cluster galaxies at late times. Monthly Notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society, 446 (1), 1107{1114. https://doi.org/10.
1093/mnras/stu2126
Jimmy, Tran, K. V., Brough, S., Gebhardt, K., Von Der Linden, A., Couch, W. J.,
& Sharp, R. (2013). Angular momenta, dynamical masses, and mergers of
brightest cluster galaxies. Astrophysical Journal, 778 (2), 171. https://doi.
org/10.1088/0004-637X/778/2/171
Kravtsov, A. V., Vikhlinin, A. A., Meshcheryakov, A. V., Kravtsov, A. V., Vikhlinin,
A. A., & Meshcheryakov, A. V. (2018). Stellar Mass|Halo Mass Relation
and Star Formation Eciency in High-Mass Halos. AstL, 44 (1), 8{34. https:
//doi.org/10.1134/S1063773717120015
Laporte, C. F., White, S. D., Naab, T., & Gao, L. (2013). The growth in size
and mass of cluster galaxies since z = 2. Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, 435 (2), 901{909. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/
stt912
Lauer, T. R. (1988). The morphology of multiple-nucleus brightest cluster galaxies
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Ed.). The Astrophysical
Journal, 325 (8), 49. https://doi.org/10.1086/165982
Law, D. R., Cherinka, B., Yan, R., Andrews, B. H., Bershady, M. A., Bizyaev,
D., Blanc, G. A., Blanton, M. R., Bolton, A. S., Brownstein, J. R., Bundy,
K., Chen, Y., Drory, N., D'Souza, R., Fu, H., Jones, A., Kaumann, G.,
MacDonald, N., Masters, K. L., . . . Zhang, K. (2016). The Data Reduction
Pipeline for the SDSS-IV MaNGA IFU Galaxy Survey. The Astronomical
Journal, 152 (4), 83. https://doi.org/10.3847/0004-6256/152/4/83
Law, D. R., Yan, R., Bershady, M. A., Bundy, K., Cherinka, B., Drory, N., Macdonald,
N., Sanchez-Gallego, J. R.,Wake, D. A.,Weijmans, A. M., Blanton,
M. R., Klaene, M. A., Moran, S. M., Sanchez, S. F., & Zhang, K. (2015).
Observing Strategy for the SDSS-IV/MaNGA IFU Galaxy Survey. https:
//doi.org/10.1088/0004-6256/150/1/19
Lidman, C., Iacobuta, G., Bauer, A. E., Barrientos, L. F., Cerulo, P., Couch,
W. J., Delaye, L., Demarco, R., Ellingson, E., Faloon, A. J., Gilbank, D.,
Huertas-Company, M., Mei, S., Meyers, J., Muzzin, A., Noble, A., Nantais,
J., Rettura, A., Rosati, P., . . . Yee, H. K. C. (2013). The importance of
major mergers in the build up of stellar mass in brightest cluster galaxies
at z = 1. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 433 (1), 825{
837. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stt777
Lidman, C., Suherli, J., Muzzin, A., Wilson, G., Demarco, R., Brough, S., Rettura,
A., Cox, J., Degroot, A., Yee, H. K., Gilbank, D., Hoekstra, H., Balogh,
M., Ellingson, E., Hicks, A., Nantais, J., Noble, A., Lacy, M., Surace, J.,
& Webb, T. (2012). Evidence for signicant growth in the stellar mass of
brightest cluster galaxies over the past 10 billion years. Monthly Notices of
the Royal Astronomical Society, 427 (1), 550{568. https://doi.org/10.1111/
j.1365-2966.2012.21984.x
Lin, Y. T., Brodwin, M., Gonzalez, A. H., Bode, P., Eisenhardt, P. R., Stanford,
S. A., & Vikhlinin, A. (2013). The stellar mass growth of brightest cluster
galaxies in the IRAC shallow cluster survey. Astrophysical Journal, 771 (1).
https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/771/1/61
Lin, Y.-T., & Mohr, J. J. (2004). K -band Properties of Galaxy Clusters and
Groups: Brightest Cluster Galaxies and Intracluster Light. The Astrophys-
ical Journal, 617 (2), 879{895. https://doi.org/10.1086/425412
Lin, Y.-T., Ostriker, J. P., Miller, C. J., Lin, Y.-T., Ostriker, J. P., & Miller,
C. J. (2010). A New Test of the Statistical Nature of the Brightest Cluster
Galaxies. ApJ, 715 (2), 1486{1496. https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/
715/2/1486
Lindegren, L., Bastian, U., Biermann, M., Bombrun, A., de Torres, A., Gerlach,
E., Geyer, R., Hernandez, J., Hilger, T., Hobbs, D., Klioner, S. A., Lammers,
U., McMillan, P. J., Ramos-Lerate, M., Steidelmuller, H., Stephenson,
C. A., & van Leeuwen, F. (2021). Gaia Early Data Release 3. Parallax
bias versus magnitude, colour, and position. A&A, 649, A4. https:
//doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202039653
Liu, F. S., Lei, F. J., Meng, X. M., & Jiang, D. F. (2015). Ongoing growth of the
brightest cluster galaxies via major dry mergers in the last 6 Gyr. Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 447 (2), 1491{1497. https://doi.
org/10.1093/mnras/stu2543
Liu, F. S., Mao, S., Deng, Z. G., Xia, X. Y., & Wen, Z. L. (2009). Major dry mergers
in early-type brightest cluster galaxies. Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, 396 (4), 2003{2010. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-
2966.2009.14907.x
Lotz, J. M., Jonsson, P., Cox, T. J., Croton, D., Primack, J. R., Somerville, R. S.,
& Stewart, K. (2011). The Major and Minor Galaxy Merger Rates at z <
1.5. The Astrophysical Journal, 742 (2), 103. https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-
637X/742/2/103
Luri, X., Chemin, L., Clementini, G., Delgado, H. E., McMillan, P. J., Romero-
Gomez, M., Balbinot, E., Castro-Ginard, A., Mor, R., Ripepi, V., Sarro,
L. M., Cioni, M.-R. L., Fabricius, C., Garofalo, A., Helmi, A., Muraveva,
T., Brown, A. G. A., Vallenari, A., Prusti, T., . . . Zwitter, T. (2021). Gaia
Early Data Release 3 - Structure and properties of the Magellanic Clouds.
Astronomy & Astrophysics, 649, A7. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/
202039588
Marinacci, F., Vogelsberger, M., Pakmor, R., Torrey, P., Springel, V., Hernquist,
L., Nelson, D.,Weinberger, R., Pillepich, A., Naiman, J., & Genel, S. (2018).
First results from the IllustrisTNG simulations: radio haloes and magnetic
elds. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 480 (4), 5113{
5139. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/sty2206
McIntosh, D. H., Guo, Y., Hertzberg, J., Katz, N., Mo, H. J., Van Den Bosch, F. C.,
& Yang, X. (2008). Ongoing assembly of massive galaxies by major merging
in large groups and clusters from the SDSS. Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, 388 (4), 1537{1556. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-
2966.2008.13531.x
Meert, A., Vikram, V., & Bernardi, M. (2013). Simulations of single- and twocomponent
galaxy decompositions for spectroscopically selected galaxies
from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro-
nomical Society, 433 (2), 1344{1361. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stt822
Meert, A., Vikram, V., & Bernardi, M. (2015a). A catalogue of 2D photometric
decompositions in the SDSS-DR7 spectroscopic main galaxy sample: pre-
ferred models and systematics. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, 446 (4), 3943{3974. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stu2333
Meert, A., Vikram, V., & Bernardi, M. (2015b). A Catalogue of Two-Dimensional
Photometric Decompositions in the SDSS-DR7 Spectroscopic Main Galaxy
Sample: Extension to g- and i-Bands. Monthly Notices of the Royal As-
tronomical Society, 455 (3), 2440{2452. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/
stv2475
Naiman, J. P., Pillepich, A., Springel, V., Ramirez-Ruiz, E., Torrey, P., Vogelsberger,
M., Pakmor, R., Nelson, D., Marinacci, F., Hernquist, L., Weinberger,
R., & Genel, S. (2018). First results from the IllustrisTNG simulations:
a tale of two elements { chemical evolution of magnesium and europium.
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 477 (1), 1206{
1224. https://doi.org/10.1093/MNRAS/STY618
Nelson, D., Pillepich, A., Springel, V., Weinberger, R., Hernquist, L., Pakmor,
R., Genel, S., Torrey, P., Vogelsberger, M., Kaumann, G., Marinacci, F.,
& Naiman, J. (2018). First results from the IllustrisTNG simulations: the
galaxy colour bimodality. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Soci-
ety, 475 (1), 624{647. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stx3040
Nelson, D., Springel, V., Pillepich, A., Rodriguez-Gomez, V., Torrey, P., Genel,
S., Vogelsberger, M., Pakmor, R., Marinacci, F., Weinberger, R., Kelley,
L., Lovell, M., Diemer, B., & Hernquist, L. (2019). The IllustrisTNG simulations:
public data release. Computational Astrophysics and Cosmology,
6 (1), 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40668-019-0028-x
Niederste-Ostholt, M., Strauss, M. A., Dong, F., Koester, B. P., & McKay, T. A.
(2010). Alignment of brightest cluster galaxies with their host clusters.
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 405 (3), 2023{2036.
https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1365-2966.2010.16597.X
Ostriker, J. P., & Tremaine, S. D. (1975). Another evolutionary correction to the
luminosity of giant galaxies. The Astrophysical Journal, 202, L113. https:
//doi.org/10.1086/181992
Peebles, P. J. E. (1982). Large-scale background temperature and mass
uctuations
due to scale-invariant primeval perturbations. The Astrophysical Journal,
263, L1. https://doi.org/10.1086/183911
Peng, C. Y. (2010). Galt User'S Manual. Aj, 139, 266. http://users.obs.carnegiescience.
edu/peng/work/galt/galt.html
Peng, C. Y., Ho, L. C., Impey, C. D., Rix, H.-W., Peng, C. Y., Ho, L. C., Impey,
C. D., & Rix, H.-W. (2002). Detailed Structural Decomposition of Galaxy
Images. AJ, 124 (1), 266{293. https://doi.org/10.1086/340952
Petrosian, V. (1976). Surface Brightness and Evolution of Galaxies. The Astro-
physical Journal, 210, L53. https://doi.org/10.1086/182301
Pillepich, A., Nelson, D., Hernquist, L., Springel, V., Pakmor, R., Torrey, P., Weinberger,
R., Genel, S., Naiman, J. P., Marinacci, F., & Vogelsberger, M.
(2018). First results from the IllustrisTNG simulations: the stellar mass content
of groups and clusters of galaxies. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro-
nomical Society, 475 (1), 648{675. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stx3112
Ragone-Figueroa, C., Granato, G. L., Ferraro, M. E., Murante, G., Bi, V., Borgani,
S., Planelles, S., & Rasia, E. (2018). BCG Mass Evolution in Cosmological
Hydro-Simulations. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, 479 (1), 1125{1136. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/sty1639
Rees, M. J., Ostriker, J. P., Rees, M. J., & Ostriker, J. P. (1977). Cooling, dynamics
and fragmentation of massive gas clouds: clues to the masses and radii of
galaxies and clusters. MNRAS, 179 (4), 541{559. https://doi.org/10.1093/
MNRAS/179.4.541
Richstone, D. O. (1976). Collisions of galaxies in dense clusters. II - Dynamical
evolution of cluster galaxies. The Astrophysical Journal, 204, 642. https:
//doi.org/10.1086/154213
Rodriguez-Gomez, V., Snyder, G. F., Lotz, J. M., Nelson, D., Pillepich, A., Springel,
V., Genel, S., Weinberger, R., Tacchella, S., Pakmor, R., Torrey, P., Marinacci,
F., Vogelsberger, M., Hernquist, L., & Thilker, D. A. (2019). The optical
morphologies of galaxies in the IllustrisTNG simulation: A comparison
to Pan-STARRS observations. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, 483 (3), 4140{4159. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/sty3345
Sastry, G. N. (1968). Clusters Associated with Supergiant Galaxies. Publications
of the Astronomical Society of the Pacic, 80 (474), 252. https://doi.org/
10.1086/128626
Seabroke, G. M., Fabricius, C., Teyssier, D., Sartoretti, P., Katz, D., Cropper, M.,
Antoja, T., Benson, K., Smith, M., Dolding, C., Gosset, E., Panuzzo, P.,
Thevenin, F., Prieto, C. A., Blomme, R., Guerrier, A., Huckle, H., Jean-
Antoine, A., Haigron, R., . . . Viala, Y. (2021). Gaia Early Data Release 3 -
Updated radial velocities from Gaia DR2. Astronomy & Astrophysics, 653,
A160. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202141008
Sersic, J. L. (1963). In
uence of the atmospheric and instrumental dispersion on
the brightness distribution in a galaxy. Boletn de la Asociacion Argentina
de Astronoma, 6, 41{43. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1963BAAA...
.6...41S/abstract
Silk, J. (1977). On the fragmentation of cosmic gas clouds. I - The formation of
galaxies and the rst generation of stars. The Astrophysical Journal, 211,
638. https://doi.org/10.1086/154972
Springel, V., Pakmor, R., Pillepich, A., Weinberger, R., Nelson, D., Hernquist, L.,
Vogelsberger, M., Genel, S., Torrey, P., Marinacci, F., & Naiman, J. (2018).
First results from the IllustrisTNG simulations: matter and galaxy clustering.
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Volume 475, Issue
1, p.676-698, 475 (1), 676. https://doi.org/10.1093/MNRAS/STX3304
von der Linden, A., Best, P. N., Kaumann, G., & White, S. D. M. (2007). How
special are brightest group and cluster galaxies? Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society, 379 (3), 867{893. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.
1365-2966.2007.11940.x
Wake, D. A., Bundy, K., Diamond-Stanic, A. M., Yan, R., Blanton, M. R., Bershady,
M. A., Sanchez-Gallego, J. R., Drory, N., Jones, A., Kaumann, G.,
Law, D. R., Li, C., MacDonald, N., Masters, K., Thomas, D., Tinker, J.,
Weijmans, A.-M., & Brownstein, J. R. (2017). The SDSS-IV MaNGA Sample:
Design, Optimization, and Usage Considerations. The Astronomical
Journal, 154 (3), 86. https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-3881/aa7ecc
Wang, L., Yang, X., Shen, S., Mo, H. J., van den Bosch, F. C., Luo, W., Wang,
Y., Lau, E. T., Wang, Q. D., Kang, X., & Li, R. (2014). Measuring the
X-ray luminosities of SDSS DR7 clusters from ROSAT All Sky Survey.
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 439 (1), 611{622. https:
//doi.org/10.1093/mnras/stt2481
Westfall, K. B., Cappellari, M., Bershady, M. A., Bundy, K., Belore, F., Ji, X.,
Law, D. R., Schaefer, A., Shetty, S., Tremonti, C. A., Yan, R., Andrews,
B. H., Brownstein, J. R., Cherinka, B., Coccato, L., Drory, N., Maraston,
C., Parikh, T., Sanchez-Gallego, J. R., . . . Zhou, S. (2019). The Data
Analysis Pipeline for the SDSS-IV MaNGA IFU Galaxy Survey: Overview.
The Astronomical Journal, 158 (6), 231. https://doi.org/10.3847/1538-
3881/ab44a2
Whiley, I. M., Aragon-Salamanca, A., De Lucia, G., von der Linden, A., Bamford,
S. P., Best, P., Bremer, M. N., Jablonka, P., Johnson, O., Milvang-Jensen,
B., Noll, S., Poggianti, B. M., Rudnick, G., Saglia, R., White, S., & Zaritsky,
D. (2008). The evolution of the brightest cluster galaxies since z 1 from
the ESO Distant Cluster Survey (EDisCS). Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society, 387 (3), 1253{1263. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-
2966.2008.13324.x
White, S. D. M., & Rees, M. J. (1978). Core condensation in heavy halos: a twostage
theory for galaxy formation and clustering. MNRAS, 183 (3), 341{
358. https://doi.org/10.1093/MNRAS/183.3.341
White, S. D. M., & Frenk, C. S. (1991). Galaxy formation through hierarchical
clustering. The Astrophysical Journal, 379, 52. https://doi.org/10.1086/
170483
Yan, R., Bundy, K., Law, D. R., Bershady, M. A., Andrews, B., Cherinka, B.,
Diamond-Stanic, A. M., Drory, N., MacDonald, N., Sanchez-Gallego, J. R.,
Thomas, D., Wake, D. A., Weijmans, A.-M., Westfall, K. B., Zhang, K.,
Aragon-Salamanca, A., Belore, F., Bizyaev, D., Blanc, G. A., . . . Zheng, Z.
(2016). SDSS-IV MaNGA IFS Galaxy Survey | Survey Design, Execution,
and Initial Data Quality. The Astronomical Journal, 152 (6), 197. https:
//doi.org/10.3847/0004-6256/152/6/197
Yan, R., Tremonti, C., Bershady, M. A., Law, D. R., Schlegel, D. J., Bundy, K.,
Drory, N., MacDonald, N., Bizyaev, D., Blanc, G. A., Blanton, M. R.,
Cherinka, B., Eigenbrot, A., Gunn, J. E., Harding, P., Hogg, D. W., Sanchez-
Gallego, J. R., Sanchez, S. F., Wake, D. A., . . . Zhang, K. (2015). SDSSIV/
MaNGA: Spectrophotometric Calibration Technique. The Astronomical
Journal, 151 (1), 8. https://doi.org/10.3847/0004-6256/151/1/8
Yang, X., Mo, H. J., & van den Bosch, F. C. (2009). Galaxy Groups in the SDSS
DR4. III. The Luminosity and Stellar Mass Functions. The Astrophysical
Journal, 695 (2), 900{916. https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/695/2/900
Yang, X., Mo, H. J., van den Bosch, F. C., & Jing, Y. P. (2005). A halo-based
galaxy group nder: calibration and application to the 2dFGRS. Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 356 (4), 1293{1307. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.08560.x
Yang, X., Mo, H. J., van den Bosch, F. C., Pasquali, A., Li, C., & Barden, M.
(2007). Galaxy Groups in the SDSS DR4. I. The Catalog and Basic Properties.
The Astrophysical Journal, 671 (1), 153{170. https://doi.org/10.
1086/522027
Yasuda, N., Fukugita, M., Narayanan, V. K., Lupton, R. H., Strateva, I., Strauss,
M. A., Ivezic, Z., Kim, R. S. J., Hogg, D. W., Weinberg, D. H., Shimasaku,
K., Loveday, J., Annis, J., Bahcall, N. A., Blanton, M., Brinkmann, J.,
Brunner, R. J., Connolly, A. J., Csabai, I., . . . York, D. G. (2001). Galaxy
Number Counts from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey Commissioning Data.
AJ, 122 (3), 1104{1124. https://doi.org/10.1086/322093