隨著無線技術的快速發展以及智能家居、智慧城市和物聯網應用對於低功耗電子電路的需求，許多研究趨勢傾向於通過從環境電磁空間或使用專用射頻源收集射頻能量。最近，射頻環境能量收集和無線電力傳輸(Wireless Power Transfer, WPT) 技術作為一種清潔和再生能源受到了廣泛關注。然而，整流天線或整流天線的優化設計在實際應用中仍然非常具有挑戰性。整流天線設計存在許多關鍵問題需要研究，例如環境功率條件下的低轉換效率和高非線性。此外，在開發用於不同應用的整流天線時，文獻中並未明顯考慮用於無線能量收集 (Wireless Energy Harvesting, WEH) 和無線電力傳輸的整流天線之間的區別。本論文的目的是對整流天線進行全面的研究，旨在克服該課題最具挑戰性的研究問題。這項工作有六個主要貢獻，可分為兩個主要部分。
第一部分提出了三個開發 WEH 整流天線的貢獻。由於使用了整流電路的非線性元件，寬頻整流天線的設計極具挑戰性。因此，我們為 WEH的應用提出了一種低複雜度的新型寬頻整流天線。所提出的整流天線由新型寬頻八木天線和基於傳輸線的寬頻整流器組成。在整流器設計中採用了一種新穎的三級阻抗匹配技術，可在微縮的尺寸下實現更高的效率。在類似的操作條件下，所提出的寬頻整流器在頻寬和轉換效率方面皆優於其他設計。第二部分提出了一種新型雙頻整流天線可用於低功率環境能量收集。目前文獻中報導的大多數整流天線都是為中高輸入功率條件設計的，而我們所提出的整流天線由具有折疊短截線 (Stub) 的新型偶極天線和高靈敏度整流器組成。在偶極天線中引入了折疊短截線以實現雙模式操作，我們還提出了一種新穎的基於單電感的高靈敏度整流器。在此整流器設計的基礎上，還提出了一種雙頻高靈敏度整流器。此處提出的整流天線設計證實了從低功率環境條件收集射頻功率的可行性。第三部分提出了一種新型射頻能量採集器，它使用組合採集架構來捕獲 915-960 MHz、1.8-2.7 GHz 和 3.4-3.7 GHz 頻段中的環境射頻能量。所提出的射頻能量收集器利用高靈敏度和高效率的整流器來提高性能，並證實了從典型的周圍環境中捕獲射頻能量於低功率應用的可行性。
WPT 應用的整流天線主要在第二部分介紹。我們提出了一種新穎的通信整流天線解決方案，可在無線傳感器節點中提供有效的數據和功率傳輸。除了傳統整流天線的環境能量收集外，此設計還可以同時執行無線訊號和電力傳輸，以促進無線感測器網路節點的不間斷供電及數據傳輸。同步無線訊號與功率傳輸(Simultaneously Wireless Information and Power Transfer, SWIPT) 和 環境無線能量收集(Ambient Wireless Energy Harvesting, AWEH) 分別採用雙極化 2×1 方形貼片天線陣列及多節彎曲寬頻單極天線。此處所提出的具有環境能量收集功能的通訊整流天線陣列可用於成為未來無線傳感器節點。商用矽蕭特基二極體的低崩潰電壓限制了傳統整流器高功率區域的轉換效率。因此，我們提出了一種用於高功率應用的新型基於氮化鎵蕭特基二極體的微波整流器。利用氮化鎵晶片與電路板之間的鎊線的電感效應，我們提出一種新穎的低損耗阻抗匹配，且此整流器在高功率操作以及峰值電壓和功率方面優於其他已發表的設計。用於 WEH 和 WPT 的傳統整流天線只能提供有限的直流功率，並且通常不具備整流天線位置的訊息。因此，此研究提出了一種具有諧波回授能力的新型雙工整流天線，可用於具有天線對準的高效 WPT 應用。雙工整流天線可以將0.915 GHz的入射射頻功率有效地轉換為直流，並且還可以將諧波信號發送回1.83 GHz的射頻發射器，用於追踪整流天線的位置，從而提高功率傳輸效率，而無需額外的天線和發射器。因此，這個基於具有回授特性的雙工整流天線的完整 WPT 系統是未來高效 WPT 應用的非常有應用前景的解決方案。

With the rapid advancement of the wireless technologies and demands of low-power electronic circuits for smart home, smart cities and IoT applications, various research trends have tended to investigate the feasibility of powering these circuits by harvesting RF energy from ambient electromagnetic space or by using dedicated RF sources. Recently, RF ambient energy harvesting and WPT technologies have gained much interest as a clean and renewable power source. However, the optimal design of a rectifying-antenna or rectenna, is still very challenging for deploying in real applications. A number of key issues and research problems have been identified for rectenna designs, such as the low conversion efficiency and strong nonlinearity under the ambient power conditions. Moreover, a clear distinction between rectennas for wireless energy harvesting (WEH) and wireless power transfer (WPT) are not significantly considered in the literatures while developing the rectennas for different applications. The purpose of this thesis is to present a comprehensive study into rectennas, aiming at overcoming the most challenging research problems of this topic. There are six main contributions from this PhD work, which can be divided into two main sections.
In the first section, three contributions are presented aimed to develop WEH rectennas. The design of broadband rectennas is exceptionally challenging due to the utilization of nonlinear elements of the rectifying circuit. Therefore, a low complexity novel broadband rectenna is initially proposed for WEH applications. The proposed rectenna consists of a novel broadband Yagi-Uda antenna and a transmission lines-based broadband rectifier. A novel three-stage impedance matching technique is utilized in the rectifier design to achieve high efficiency with a compact size. The proposed broadband rectifier outperforms other designs in bandwidth and conversion efficiency under similar operating conditions. Then, a novel dual-band rectenna is proposed for low power ambient energy harvesting. Most reported rectennas in the literature were designed for medium and high input power conditions. The proposed rectenna consists of a novel dipole antenna with folded stubs and a highly sensitive rectifier. Folded stubs are introduced in the dipole antenna for dual-mode operation. A novel single external inductor-based high sensitivity rectifier is also proposed. Based on the rectifier design, a dual-band high sensitivity rectifier is also proposed. This rectenna design confirms the feasibility of harvesting RF power from low power ambient conditions. Thirdly, a novel RF energy harvester using combined harvesting topology to capture the ambient RF energy in 915-960 MHz, 1.8-2.7 GHz, and 3.4-3.7 GHz frequency bands is proposed. The proposed RF energy harvester utilised high sensitivity and high efficiency rectifiers for improving the performance. This design confirms the feasibility of capturing RF energy from a typical ambient environment for low power applications.
Rectennas for WPT applications are mainly presented in the second section. A novel communication rectenna solution is proposed to provide effective data and power transfer in wireless sensor nodes. Along with the ambient energy harvesting of conventional rectenna, the proposed design can also perform simultaneous wireless information and power transfer for facilitating uninterrupted power supply and data transfer of WSN nodes. A dual polarized 2×1 square patch antenna array and a multisection bended broadband monopole antenna are employed for SWIPT and AWEH, respectively. Thus, the proposed communication rectenna array with ambient energy harvesting can be a promising candidate for future wireless sensor nodes. Low breakdown voltage in commercial silicon Schottky diodes limits the conversion efficiency in the high-power region of conventional rectifiers. Therefore, a novel GaN Schottky diode-based microwave rectifier is proposed for high-power applications. A novel low loss impedance matching is utilised by exploiting the unavoidable inductance effects of bond wires used for providing the electrical connection between GaN chip and board. The proposed rectifier is better than the other published designs in terms of the high-power operation as well as the peak voltage and power. Conventional rectennas for WEH and WPT can only offer a limited DC power amount and typically do not have the rectenna’s location knowledge. Thus, a novel duplexing rectenna with a harmonic feedback capability for efficient WPT applications with the antenna alignment is proposed. The duplexing rectenna can efficiently convert the incident RF power at 0.915 GHz to DC and also send a reasonable harmonic signal back to the RF transmitter at 1.83 GHz for tracking the position of rectenna to improve power transfer efficiency without the need of another antenna and transmitters. Thus, this complete WPT system based on a duplexing rectenna with feedback property is a very promising solution for future efficient WPT applications.

Abstract i
Acknowledgements v
Table of Contents vi
Table of Figures x
List of Publications xvi
Acronyms xix
Chapter 1. Introduction 1
1.1. Ambient RF Wireless Energy Harvesting 2
1.2. Wireless Power Transfer 5
1.2.1. Non-radiative WPT 6
1.2.1.1. Inductive Coupling 6
1.2.1.2. Capacitive Coupling 7
1.2.2. Radiative WPT 8
1.2.2.1. Microwave Wireless Power Transfer (MWPT) 8
1.2.2.2. Laser Power Transmission 9
1.3. Research Motivation 10
1.4. Organization of the Thesis 12
Chapter 2. Literature Review 18
2.1. History of Wireless Power Transfer 18
2.2. Overview of Rectennas Studies 24
2.2.1. Rectennas for High Power WPT 24
2.2.2. Rectennas for Low Power Energy Harvesting 28
2.3. Summary 33
Chapter 3. Broadband Rectenna for Wireless Energy Harvesting Applications 40
3.1. Introduction 41
3.2. Miniaturized Broadband Yagi Uda Antenna 42
3.2.1. Introduction 42
3.2.2. Design and Principle 43
3.2.3. Antenna Performance 47
3.3. Transmission Lines-Based Impedance Matching Technique 50
3.3.1. Proposed Broadband Rectifier Design 51
3.3.1.1. Design of the 1st Stage 53
3.3.1.2. Design of the 2nd Stage 55
3.3.1.3. Design of the 3rd Stage 56
3.3.2. Broadband Rectifier Performance 59
3.4. Rectenna Evaluation 64
3.5. Summary 65
Chapter 4. Highly Sensitive Dual-Band Rectenna 70
4.1. Introduction 70
4.1.1. Design of Highly Sensitive Rectifier 71
4.2. Highly Sensitive Dual-Band Rectifier 75
4.2.1. Design of Dual-Band Rectifier 75
4.2.2. Performance of the Rectifier 76
4.3. Dual-Mode Dipole Antenna 77
4.3.1. Dual-Mode Dipole Antenna Design 79
4.3.2. Measurement Results and Validation 86
4.4. Dual-Band Antenna for WEH 89
4.4.1. Design of Dual-Band Antenna 89
4.4.2. Dual-Band Dipole Antenna Evaluation 92
4.5. Rectenna Evaluation 93
4.6. Summary 95
Chapter 5. High-Efficiency Compact RF Harvester 99
5.1. Introduction 99
5.2. Antenna Design 101
5.3. Rectifier Design 107
5.4. RF Energy Harvester Measurement 112
5.5. Summary 114
Chapter 6. SWIPT Rectenna With AWEH Capability for WSN Nodes 117
6.1. Introduction 118
6.2. Antenna Design 119
6.3. Broadband Rectifier Design 123
6.3.1. Design of Broadband Rectifier 124
6.4. WPT Rectifier 126
6.4.1. Parallel DC Combining 128
6.5. Communication Rectenna Array 130
6.6. Summary 132
Chapter 7. High-Power Wire Bonded GaN Rectifier for Wireless Power Transmission 134
7.1. Introduction 134
7.2. Rectifier Design 136
7.2.1. Rectifying Element Selection 136
7.2.2. Wire Bonding Interconnects 138
7.2.3. Impedance Matching and Rectifier Design 140
7.3. Rectifier Performance 142
7.4. Summary 146
Chapter 8. High-Efficiency Wireless Power Transfer Using Duplexing Rectenna 148
8.1. Introduction 148
8.2. Duplexing Antenna 150
8.2.1. Antenna Structure 150
8.2.2. Evolution of Dual-Band Antenna Design 151
8.2.3. Duplexing Antenna Design 155
8.2.4. Duplexing Antenna Performance 156
8.3. Harmonic Feedback Rectifier 158
8.3.1. Analysis of Harmonic Generation 158
8.3.2. Harmonic Feedback Rectifier Design 161
8.3.3. Harmonic Feedback Rectifier Performance. 164
8.4. Experimental Validation 167
8.5. Summary 175
Chapter 9. Conclusions and Future Work 179
9.1. Key Contributions 179
9.1.1. Broadband Rectenna 180
9.1.2. Highly Sensitive Dual-Band Rectenna 180
9.1.3. High Efficiency RF Energy Harvester 181
9.1.4. SWIPT Rectenna With AWEH Capability for WSN Nodes 181
9.1.5. High Power GaN Rectifier 182
9.1.6. Duplexing Rectenna With Harmonic Feedback Capability 182
9.2. Future Work 183
Appendix 185

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