這篇論文的寫作背景是：鑑於我們可在中期的尼采（1878-1882，所謂的「上午時期」）之哲學中看到尼采自己的早期科學觀，即他對科學本身和科學實踐之反省的觀點集合，後者不同於晚期在構思權力意志架構時出現的相對主義傾向，乃一有系統之架構，於是我把他的早期中期著作中出現的科學哲學之反思稱為他的「早期科學哲學」。我從他的主要觀點－「科學作為以概念對「自然」進行模仿」來切入，挖掘科學和語言，尤其科學和語言中的概念和人的心智對自然的仿模是怎樣的關係來立論，[參考§1., 1.0.1., 1.1., 1.2., 1.3.]而後者作為人的認知產物又如何是人的觀點視域之產物。（我引入觀點主義來作為他的知識論原則，而其又牽涉兩面向：知覺面向以及理論認知面向。[參考§2.]）此外，我還發現這種「觀點主義」下的科學哲學傾向採取「合作式自然主義」作為其方法論策略。[見§2.1., 2.2.] 這個立場，因為非常近似於Georg Northoff所提倡的「非化約論神經科學哲學」所採取的「方法論多元主義」，特別是合作式自然主義；於是我嘗試以後者之架構來理解尼采，甚至把尼采觀點主義中帶有的「meta-reason」反過來支援前者。
透過回答「尼采是否在其早期科學哲學中採取合作式自然主義？」這個主要問題，我反思Northoff和尼采兩者之立場，尤其尼采哲學中的存有論、知識論之設定；因為方法論乃是對方法之反思，而方法本身又反映了「世界大概長怎樣」、「如何認識世界」的存有論和知識論設定。Northoff曾以Autoepistemic Limitation [見§3., 3.1., 3.2.] 來支援其方法論立場，尼采則以視角主義來支援其科學哲學觀和其下的自然主義立場。我比較兩者之共通性，並且在必要時引入《道德系譜學》當中較為成熟之晚期思想精粹，來補足早、中期尼采之含糊處。最後我試著給出理由支持合作式自然主義且闡明其潛在優勢。我認為我的貢獻在於：我試圖讓尼采的哲學性的科學，以及Northoff的科學中的哲學（即，他的「實踐哲學」）兩者產生連結，這個聯合有助於跨領域研究一般，也有助於哲學之未來，倘若哲學在康德之後仍想在某些面向上科學化或形塑一知識論典範或方法論之批判態度的話；而科學界也因此能有更多方法論反省之可能，後者的確需要哲學家的介入以及哲學洞見之照亮的。（否則科學和偽科學之間、真理和謬誤之間又還有什麼好區別的呢？……）然則，哲學家也不再能安逸地臥在躺椅上，因為我們合作式自然主義者還相信：「哲學缺乏科學是空洞的，科學缺乏哲學是盲目的。」

- Background statement:
Already in the middle Nietzsche (1878-1882, the so-called “Philosophie des Vormittags” period) we can discover many reflections upon scientific practice and science in general, where he already has some theory of science in mind, which I name as his early philosophy of science. I dig out his main idea－“science as the imitation of nature in concepts”－and elaborate it further with his theory of concepts and imitation [see §1., 1.0.1., 1.1., 1.2., 1.3.], which is a product of our perspective (perspectivism taken as phenomenalism on both the perceptual level and theoretical/ cognitive level). [see §2] I further discover that Nietzsche, with his perspectivism, tends to adopt methodological pluralism rather than methodological monism which holds that science itself needs no philosophical critique and is rather self-sufficient. [see §2.1., 2.2.] This position, which is very close to Georg Northoff’s cooperative naturalism, attracts my attention.
- Aim:
By answering “Is Nietzsche’s early philosophy of science ‘Cooperative Naturalism’?” I reflect both Nietzsche and Northoff’s position in general and find an interesting resonance: their meta-reason for this methodological position is very similar (“Autoepistemic Limitation” and perspectivism) [see §3., 3.1., 3.2.]; in light of this comparison and reflection, I think we may understand Nietzsche in a better way (at least clearer than with Christian Emden’s Nietzsche’s Naturalism ). Since Nietzsche’s methodology already reflects his epistemology and ontology, it is necessary to have his perspectivism in mind when interpreting his philosophy of science. Perspectivism does not ultimately lead to relativism, but structural realism [§2], and hence we may attain partial objectivity [§2]. Cooperative naturalism (CN) therefore may reduce the perspectival blind spot on the theoretical/cognitive level (perspectivism has epistemologically two levels, namely perceptual and cognitive), suggested by the late Nietzsche in his GM, which is nonetheless compatible with his early philosophy of science. On the other hand, Northoff suggests that CN itself has a clear advantage: it does not omit other possible additional features pointed out by other disciplines and methodologies, which totally shares Nietzsche’s spirit. The further advantage of my work would be: I try to make a connection between Nietzsche’s philosophical science and Northoff’s philosophy in science (which is a philosophy in practice), which may shed new light on future methodological reflections.

§ 0.1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………1
§ 1. The role of science in Human, All Too Human…………………………………………………….2
- 1.0.1. Chemistry of concepts and sensations……………………………………………….3
§ 1.1. Science as a precise language, language as a putative science………………………11
§ 1.2. Science as the imitation of nature in concepts………………………………………………16
§ 1.3. The nature of concept and imitation…………………………………………………………….17
§ 2. The insufficiency of science: perspectivism as Nietzsche's philosophical critique……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………23
§ 2.1. The critique of “the will to truth”………………………………………………………………….32
§ 2.2. Science as a means of knowledge, knowledge as a means of growth of life….34
§ 3. Why cooperative naturalism?..............................................................................37
- 3.0.1. Methodological Naturalism: Cooperative versus Replacement/ Reductive Naturalism………………………………………………………………………………………………39
§ 3.1. Georg Northoff’s cooperative naturalism as a possible position for Nietzsche………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..46
§ 3.2. Some reflections as ending…………………………………………………………………………..50
Abbreviations………………………………………………………………………………………………………….53
Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………………………………54

I
Nietzsche's Works in English
[Alterations of translations may appear in some texts in order to fit into the context intended or simply improvements of the original.]
Published Works
The Antichrist (written 1888). In The Portable Nietzsche, ed. and trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Viking Press, 1968.
Assorted Opinions and Maxims (1879). Volume II, Part 1 of Human, All Too Human . Trans. R. J. Hollingdale. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
Beyond Good and Evil (1886). In Basic Writings of Nietzsche, ed. and trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Modern Library, 1966.
The Birth of Tragedy (1872). In Basic Writings of Nietzsche, ed. and trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Modern Library, 1966.
The Case of Wagner (1888). In Basic Writings of Nietzsche, ed. and trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Modern Library, 1966.
Daybreak (1881). Trans. R. J. Hollingdale. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
Ecce Homo (written 1888). In Basic Writings of Nietzsche, ed. and trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Modern Library, 1966.
The Gay Science (Books I–IV: 1882; Book V: 1887). Trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Vintage Books, 1974.
Human, All Too Human, Vol. I (1878). Trans. R. J. Hollingdale. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
On the Genealogy of Morals (1887). In Basic Writings of Nietzsche, ed. and trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Modern Library, 1966. Roman numerals indicate essay number.
"On the Use and Disadvantage of History for Life" (1874). In Untimely Meditations, trans. R. J. Hollingdale. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. References to this text provide both section and page numbers from this edition.
"Schopenhauer as Educator" (1874). In Untimely Meditations, trans. R. J. Hollingdale. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. References to this text provide both section and page numbers from this edition.
Thus Spoke Zarathustra (Parts I–II: 1883; Part III: 1884; Part IV: 1885). In The Portable Nietzsche, ed. and trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: The Viking Press, 1968. Arabic numerals indicate the Part number, followed by the chapter title.
Twilight of the Idols (written 1888). In The Portable Nietzsche, ed. and trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: The Viking Press, 1968. The eleven major divisions of this text are indicated by abbreviations of their titles: "Maxims," "Socrates," "Reason," "World," "Morality," "Errors," "Improvers," "Germans," "Skirmishes," "Ancients," and "Hammer."
The Wanderer and His Shadow (1880). Vol. II, Part 2, of Human, All Too Human . Trans. R. J. Hollingdale. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.

Unpublished Works and Notes
"Homer's Contest" (written 1872). In The Portable Nietzsche, ed. and trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Viking Press, 1968. Page numbers refer to this edition.
"On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense" (written 1873). In Philosophy and Truth: Selections from Nietzsche's Notebooks of the Early 1870's, ed. and trans. Daniel Breazeale. Atlantic Highlands: Humanities Press International, 1979. Page numbers refer to this edition.
Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks (written 1873), trans. Marianne Cowan. Washington, DC: Regnery Gateway, 1962. References to this text provide both section and page numbers from this edition.
The Will to Power (selected notes from 1883–88). Ed. Walter Kaufmann. Trans. Walter Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale. New York: Vintage Books, 1967.

II
Nietzsche's Works in German
References to the Colli-Montinari Studienausgabe are indicated by the acronym KSA followed by the volume number, a colon, and the fragment number(s) (e.g., KSA 12: 5[71]).
Friedrich Nietzsche, Kritische Studienausgabe . Ed. Giorgio Colli and Mazzino Montinari. Berlin/New York, Walter de Gruyter, 1967–88.

For material not contained in the KSA, I refer to the more complete Kritische Gesamtausgabe, references to which are indicated by the acronym KGW, followed by the volume numbers, a colon, and the fragment number(s) (e.g., KGW II/4:4[73]).
Friedrich Nietzsche, Kritische Gesamtausgabe . Ed. Giorgio Colli and Mazzino Montinari. Berlin, Walter de Gruyter, 1967-.

III
Others
- Bernard Baars and Nicole Gage, Fundamentals of Cognitive Neuroscience: A Beginner's Guide (New York: Elsevier, 2013)
- Chalmers, D. J. 1995. “Facing up to the problem of consciousness.” Journal of Consciousness Studies
- Christian J. Emden, Nietzsche's Naturalism: Philosophy and the Life Sciences in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014)
- Daniel Dennett, Consciousness Explained (New York: Back Bay Books, 1991)
- Edwin Arthur Burtt, The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Company, 1925)
- Eric Steinhart, On Nietzsche (California: Wadsworth, 1999)
- Georg Northoff, Minding the Brain: A Guide to Philosophy and Neuroscience (Hampshire: Palgrave, 2014)
- Georg Northoff, Philosophy of the Brain (Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2004)
- Immanuel Kant, Guyer, P., and Wood, A., (eds.), 1998, Critique of Pure Reason, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Johannes Bauer, et al, “Attention Modeled as Information in Learning Multisensory Integration” in Neural Networks 2015.
- Karl Marx - Friedrich Engels - Werke, Band 25, "Das Kapital", Bd. III, Siebenter Abschnitt, 48 III, S. 825, Dietz Verlag, Berlin/DDR 1983.
- Karl Popper (1989). "Zwei Bedeutungen von Falsifizierbarkeit [Two meanings of falsifiability]". In Seiffert, H.; Radnitzky, G. Handlexikon der Wissenschaftstheorie [Dictionary of epistemology] (in German) (1992 ed.). München: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag.
- Mudrik L, Faivre N, Koch C, “Information integration without awareness” in Trends in Cognitive Sciences 18, 488-496; September, 2014.
- Natalie Schmitt, “Aristotle's Poetics and Aristotle's Nature” in Journal of Dramatic Theory and Criticism, 1987.
- Philp Lehner’s Handbook of Ethological Methods, and Lee Alan Dugatkin’s Principles of Animal Behavior.
- Quine, W.V.O., 1969, Ontological Relativity and Other Essays, New York: Columbia University Press.
- Roger Joseph Boscovich, Theory of Natural Philosophy (Chicago: Open Court Publishing, 1922)
- Sarah Riedman, Antoine Lavoisier: Scientist and Citizen (New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1967)
- Thomas Brobjer, Nietzsche and Science (London: Routledge, 2004)