深蹲時膝蓋到底能不能超出腳尖？這項從事深蹲運動時常碰到的困惑，不僅是運動醫學的問題，同時也牽涉到深蹲動作的演化史，以及圍繞「深蹲對膝蓋有害嗎？」所發生的科技爭議。本研究從科學與知識社會學的角度出發，從健身者常見的困惑開始，深入深蹲標準動作的演化史，並從體育史研究、運動醫學論文、健身雜誌等文獻、探討19世紀末美國體育文化（physical culture）的歷史、20世紀後半在深蹲爭議當中發生的詮釋彈性，以及不同版本的標準深蹲動作定案的過程。
在20世紀初，早期健身社群逐漸發展以全蹲動作為核心的深蹲訓練法，但到了1960年代，美國運動醫學家Karl Klein首先指出深蹲運動中的全蹲動作有害膝關節健康，引發健美、舉重選手等早期健身社群的不滿，掀起了第一次深蹲爭議的序幕。爭議最終由Klein取得完全勝利，早期健身社群支持的全蹲為半蹲、平行蹲所取代。然而，隨著新證據的出爐，質疑與支持Klein研究的運動醫學論文陸續在1970年代以後出現，並在運動醫學社群內部開啟了第二次深蹲爭議。複製Klein實驗的研究者認為並無證據顯示全蹲會造成膝蓋傷害，但使用生物力學方法的研究者卻指出全蹲與膝蓋前推的動作對膝關節造成的剪力，明顯高過其他深蹲方式，造成更高的傷害風險。到了爭議最後，運動醫學社群選擇協商雙方陣營的論點，以深蹲時膝蓋的位置作為妥協的空間，並隨新證據調整，最終形成今日教科書中常見的深蹲動作：「平行蹲時膝蓋能略為超出腳尖」。
本研究主張，在兩次深蹲爭議的發展下，早期健身社群與運動醫學社群，因為知識傳統的差異與科學研究不確定性造成的限制，使得深蹲運動的標準動作不斷產生演化。而在20世紀中後期發生的體育研究科學化、體能教練專業化，則加速了爭議發展的過程，並使運動醫學社群取得了結爭議的歷史機遇。從科技史的角度看來，實際上深蹲究竟是否會造成膝蓋傷害，在漫長的歷史中並未有一方給出肯定的答案。唯一確定的，是運動醫學社群在一連串的發展以後，取代早期健身社群的位置，成為今日深蹲動作最重要的知識權威。

Should the knees go past the toes during a deep squat? This common confusion in squatting is not only a question of sports medicine, but it also relates to the evolution of the squat movement and the technological controversy surrounding the question "Is squats bad for the knees? ". This study examine the evolution of the standard squat movement from perspective of sociology of scientific knowledge. It inquires into the history of physical culture in the late 19th century, and interpretative flexibility and closure of squat controversy in late 20th in the United States by utilizing materials collected from sports history studies, sports medicine papers, and fitness magazines.

In the early 20th century, the early fitness community gradually developed full squat as the core of the squat training method. However, in the 1960s, Karl Klein, an American sports medicine researcher, first pointed out that full squat is harmful to knee health. The claim provoked an outcry from bodybuilders, weightlifters and other early fitness community, and evoked the first squat controversy. However, as new evidence became available in the 1970s, sports medicine papers questioning or supporting Klein's research both emerged and caused the second squat controversy within the sports medicine community. Researchers who replicated the Klein experiment concluded that there is no evidence that full squats cause knee injuries, but those who used biomechanical approach noted that full squats and knee thrusts cause significantly higher shear forces on the knee joint than other squatting styles, resulting in a higher risk of injury. In the end of the controversy, the sports medicine community chose to negotiate the arguments of both camps. They viewed the position of knees in deep squat as room of compromising, and adjusted it with new evidence, which eventually resulted in the squat style commonly seen in textbooks today: "The knees can go slightly past the toes during parallel squat.

This research argues that the difference of intellectual traditions between early fitness community and sports medicine community, and uncertainty of scientific research, shaped the development of squat controversy. In addition, the scientification of sports research and the professionalization of fitness and conditioning coaching that occurred in the mid to late 20th century not only accelerated the development of squat controversy, but also gave sports medicine community historical opportunity to settle the controversy. From the perspective of history of science and technology, there is no definite answer to the question of "Is squat bad for the knees?". The only thing that is certain is that the sports medicine community, after a series of developments, has taken the place of the early fitness community as the most important authority of knowledge on squatting today.

中文摘要 1
英文摘要 2
壹、前言 7
一、該怎麼蹲？ 7
二、深蹲簡史 16
貳、身體動作、科技爭議與EPOR 22
一、身體技術研究 22
二、爭議研究：定位深蹲爭議與EPOR三階段論 24
（一）爭議的定義與專家社群 24
（二）爭議的特徵與了結形式 32
（三）研究者在爭議中的立場 40
三、史學研究下的深蹲爭議與運動醫學 42
四、研究方法與架構 44
參、深蹲爭議的序幕 50
一、信仰、身體與運動 51
（一）都市裡的清教徒 51
（二）健碩基督教運動與體育（physical education）的出現 55
二、早期健身社群的建立：明星的肉體展演 57
（一）從肉體展示到健身產業 58
（二）深蹲——身體經驗塑造的知識傳統 63
（三）早期健身社群的侷限 65
三、運動醫學社群的出現：戰爭下的運動與醫學 66
（一）戰爭、運動與國民的身體 67
（二）從適當運動到強化體能 70
四、小結：深蹲爭議中的兩種知識傳統 74
肆、深蹲爭議的開端：Karl Klein與第一次深蹲爭議 75
一、Karl Klein與他的研究 77
（一）研究假設的形成：解剖運動中的膝蓋 78
（二）Klein的研究方法：測量深蹲的風險 83
（三）Klein的解方：以半蹲取代深蹲 86
二、詮釋彈性：早期健身社群的反對者 87
（一）蹲的異常/正常？ 89
（二）研究所需或實驗瑕疵？ 91
三、了結機制：健全論證抑或是外力了結？ 92
（一）第一次深蹲爭議中的詮釋彈性 92
（二）第一次深蹲爭議如何了結 93
伍、運動醫學社群的妥協 98
一、 運動醫學深蹲研究的詮釋彈性 100
（一）再訪Klein的實驗設計：複製實驗 100
（二）生物力學概念的投入：膝關節內的剪應力 103
（三）新的對立與科學的不確定性 108
二、 在膝蓋與腳尖之間的協商 109
（一）膝蓋不能超過腳尖？ 110
（二）新證據與平衡點 112
三、 了結機制：「廣義的」協商了結 116
陸、結論 121
一、EPOR觀點下的深蹲爭議 122
（一）深蹲的爭議與了結 122
（二）社會文化結構的角色 124
二、研究限制與貢獻 127
附錄1、英文專有名詞 129
附錄2、運動醫學關鍵概念之名詞解釋 130
附錄3、除了背蹲舉以外常見的深蹲變化型 132
參考文獻 134

Andreasson, Jesper and ThomasJohansson. 2014. “The Fitness Revolution. Historical Transformations in the Global Gym and Fitness Culture.” Sport Science Review 23(3–4):91–111.
Andrews, J. G., J. G.Hay, and C. L.Vaughan. 1983. “Knee Shear Forces during a Squat Exercise Using a Barbell and a Weight Machine.” Biomechanics VIII(4B):923–27.
Ariel, B. G. 1974. “Biomechanical Analysis Og the Knee Joint during Deep Knee Bends with Heavy Load.” Biomechanics IV(1):44–52.
Atwater, Anne E. 1980. “Kinesiology/Biomechanics: Perspectives and Trends.” Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 51(1):193–218.
Barnes, Barry and Donald MacKenzie. 1979. “On the Role of Interests in Scientific Change.” Sociological Review 27(S1):49–66.
Beckwith, K. and J.Todd. 2005. “Strength: America’s First Muscle Magazine, 1914-1935.” North American Society For Sport History.
Berry, Mark. 1932. “One Reader.” The Strong Man 2(3):45.
Berryman, J. W. 1992. “Exercise and the Medical Tradition from Hippocrates through Antebellum America: A Review Essay.” Pp. 1–56 in Sport and exercise science: Essays in the history. the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois.
——— 2010. “Exercise Is Medicine: A Historical Perspective.” Current Sports Medicine 9(4):195–201.
——— 2011. “Ancient and Early Influences.” Pp. 1–38 in Exercise physiology: people and ideas, edited by Charles M Tipton. NewYork: Oxford.
Bloor, D. 1991. Knowledge and Social Imagery. The University of Chicago Press.
——— 2011. The Enigma of the Aerofoil : Rival Theories in Aerodynamics, 1909–1930. University of Chicago Press.
Boyle, Robert R. 1955. “The Report That Shock the President.” Sports Illustrated, 30–33.
Chalmers, A. F. 1990. Science and Its Fabrication. University of Minnesota Press.
Chandler, T. J. and M. H. Stone. 1991. “The Squat Exercise in Athletic Conditioning: A Position Statement and Review of the Literature.” Strength & Conditioning Journal 13.
Chandler, T. J., G. D.Wilson, and M. H. Stone. 1989. “The Effect of the Squat Exercise on Knee Stability.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 21(3):299–303.
——— 1989. “A SURVEY: The Squat Exercise Attitudes and Practices of High School Football Coaches.” Strength & Conditioning Journal 11(1):30–36.
Collins, H. M. 1981. “Empirical Programme of Relativism.” Social Studies of Science 3–10.
——— 1981. “The Place of the ‘Core-Set’ in Modern Science: Social Contingency with Methodological Propriety in Science.” History of Science 19(1):6–19.
——— 1983. “The Sociology of Scientific Knowledge: Studies of Contemporary Science.” Annual Review of Sociology 9(1):265–85.
——— 1992. Changing Order: Replication and Induction in Scientific Practice. University of Chicago Press.
——— 1998. “The Meaning of Data: Open and Closed Evidential Cultures in the Search for Gravitational Waves.” American Journal of Sociology 104(2):293–338.
Collins, H. M. and Robert Evans. 2002. “The Third Wave of Science Studies: Studies of Expertise and Experience.” Social Studies of Science 32(2):235–96.
——— 2007. Rethinking Expertise. University of Chicago Press.
Crossley, Nick. 2007. “Researching Embodiment by Way of ‘Body Techniques.’” The Sociological Review 55(1_suppl):80–94.
Dutton, Kenneth R. 1995. The Perfectible Body: The Western Ideal of Physical Development. Continuum Intl Pub Group.
Engelhardt, H. T. and A. L. Caplan. 1987. “Patterns of Controversy and Closure: The Interplay of Knowledge, Values, and Political Forces.” Pp. 1–23 in Scientific controversies: case studies in the resolution and closure of disputes in science and technology, edited by A. L.Engelhardt, H.T. and Caplan. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Escamilla, R. F. 2001. “Knee Biomechanics of the Dynamic Squat Exercise.” Medicine & Science in Sports 33(1):121–41.
Foucault, Michel. 1977. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. edited by A.Sheridan. Random House.
Fry, A. C., J. C. Smith, and B. K. Schilling. 2003. “Effect of Knee Position on Hip and Knee Torques during the Barbell Squat.” Journal of Strength & Conditioning 17(4).
Green, Harvey. 1986. Fit for America: Health, Fitness, Sport, and American Society. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Grimek. 1963. “Is the Squat Dangerous？.” Strength & Health, 53.
Hartmann, Hagen, Klaus Wirth, and Markus Klusemann. 2013. “Analysis of the Load on the Knee Joint and Vertebral Column with Changes in Squatting Depth and Weight Load.” Sports Medicine 43(10):993–1008.
Homola, Samuel. 1965. “Three Reasons Why You Should Do Squats.” Strength & Health June:53.
Houtz, Sara Jane, Annie M. Parrish, and Frances A.Hellebrandt. 1946. “The Influence of Heavy Resistance Exercise on Strength.” Physical Therapy 26(6):299–304.
Klein, Alan M. 1993. Little Big Men: Bodybuilding Subculture and Gender Construction. Suny Press.
Klein, Karl. 1961. “The Deep Squat Exercise as Utilized in Weight Training for Athletes and Its Effect on the Ligaments of the Knee.” Journal of the Association for Physical and Mental Rehabilitation 15:6–11.
——— 1962a. “An Instrument for Testing the Medial and Lateral Collateral Ligament Stability of the Knee.” The American Journal of Surgery 104(5):768–72.
——— 1962b. “Squats Right.” Scholastic Coach 32(2):70.
——— 1962c. “The Knee and the Ligaments.” The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 44(6):1191–93.
——— 1963a. “Acceptable Weight Training Squat Exercise for Leg Development and Knee Protection as Based on Ligament Studies for the Knee.” Medicina Dello Sport 3(9):999–1006.
——— 1963b. “Full Squat or Half Squat.” Mr. America 5(8):89.
Klein, Karl and F. L.Allman. 1969. The Knee in Sports:The Knee in Sports: Conditioning, Injury Prevention, Rehabilitation and Studies Related to the Knee. A Text for the Athletic Team Physician, Athletic Trainer, Coach and Physical Education Personnel. Pemberton Press.
Klein, Siegmund. 1943. Super Physique. London: The Mitre Press.
Latour, B. 2005. Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory. NewYork: Oxford University Press.
Latour, B. 1987. Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Societ. Harvard University Press.
Li, Guoan, Louis E. DeFrate, Harry E. Rubash, and Thomas J. Gill. 2005. “In Vivo Kinematics of the ACL during Weight-Bearing Knee Flexion.” Journal of Orthopaedic Research 23(2):340–44.
Mackenzie, Donald. 1978. “Statistical Theory and Social Interests: A Case-Study.” Social Studies of Science 8(1):35–83.
Maguire, J. S. 2002. “Body Lessons：Fitness Publishing and the Cultural Production of the Fitness Consumer.” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 37(3–4):449–64.
——— 2007. Fit for Consumption: Sociology and the Business of Fitness. Routledge.
——— 2008. “Leisure and the Obligation of Self‐Work: An Examination of the Fitness Field.” Leisure Studies 27(1):59–75.
Mauss, Marcel. 1973. “Techniques of the Body.” Economy and Society 2(1):70–88.
McCloy, C. H. 1936. “How about Some Muscle?” The Journal of Health and Physical Education 7(5):302–55.
——— 1937. “Forgotten Objectives of Physical Education.” The Journal of Health and Physical Education 8(8):458–513.
McKean, M. and B. Burkett. 2012. “KNEE BEHAVIOUR IN SQUATTING.” Journal of Australian Strength & Conditioning 20(2):23–36.
McKenzie, S. 2013. Getting Physical: The Rise of Fitness Culture in America. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.
McLean, Roy J. and Karl Klein. 1960. “The University of Texas.” Strength & Health, 34–35, 53–57.
McMullin, Ernan. 1987. “Scientific Controversy and Its Termination.” Pp. 49–91 in Scientific controversies: case studies in the resolution and closure of disputes in science and technology, edited by H.Tristram Engelhardt Jr andAruthur L. Caplan. Cambridge University Press.
Meyers, E. J. 1971. “Effect of Selected Exercise Variables on Ligament Stability and Flexibility of the Knee.” Research Quarterly. American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation 42(4):411–22.
National Strength and Conditioning Association 2015. Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning 4th Edition. edited by G.Haff andN.Triplett. Human kinetics.
Park, R. J. 1987. “Physiologists, Physicians, and Physical Educators: Nineteenth Century Biology and Exercise," Hygienic" and" Educative".” Journal of Sport 14(1):28–60.
——— 1989. “The Second 100 Years: Or, Can Physical Education Become the Renaissance Field of the 21st Century?” Quest 41(1):1–27.
Putney, C. 2009. Muscular Christianity: Manhood and Sports in Protestant America, 1880-1920. Harvard University Press.
Rasch, Philip 1966. Weight Training. W. C. Brown Co. Publishers.
Ratamess, Nicholas A. 2012. ACSM’s Foundations of Strength Training and Conditioning. American College of Sports Medicine.
Raynaud, D. 2017. Scientific Controversies: A Socio-Historical Perspective on the Advancement of Science. Routledge.
Sandow, Eugen. 1894. System of Physical Training. edited by G. M.Adam. Gale & Polden.
Schoenfeld, B. J. 2010. “Squatting Kinematics and Kinetics and Their Application to Exercise Performance.” The Journal of Strength & Conditioning 24(12):3497–3506.
Schoenfeld, B. and M. Williams. 2012. “Are Deep Squats a Safe and Viable Exercise?” Strength & Conditioning Journal 34(2):34–36.
Scott, Pam, Evelleen Richards, and Brian Martin. 1990. “Captives of Controversy: The Myth of the Neutral Social Researcher in Contemporary Scientific Controversies.” Science, Technology & Human Values 15(4):474–94.
Shapin, Steven and Simon Schaffer. 1985. Leviathan and the Air-Pump. NJ: Princeton University Press.
Shurley, J. P. 2013. Strength for Sport: The Development of the Professional Strength and Conditioning Coach. The University of Texas at Austin.
Soares, John. 2016. “Theory an Method in American Sport History.” Pp. 5–16 in The Routledge History of American Sports, edited by G. R. G.Linda J. Borish, David K. Wiggins. Routledge.
Starr, Bill. 2009. “Squats.” Iron man Magazine. https://www.ironmanmagazine.com/squats/
Swinton, P., R. Lloyd, W. L. Keogh, I. Agouris, and A. D. Stewart. 2012. “A Biomechanical Comparison of the Traditional Squat, Powerlifting Squat, and Box Squat.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 26(3):1805–16.
Todd, J. 1993. “‘Strength Is Health’: George Barker Windship and the First American Weight Training Boom.” Iron Game History 3(1):5–6.
Todd, J., J. P. Shurley, and T. Todd. 2012. “Ovid: Thomas L. DeLorme and the Science of Progressive Resistance Exercise.” The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 26(11):2913–23.
Todd, T. 1984. “Historical Opinion: Karl Klein and the Squat.” Strength & Conditioning Journal 6(3):26–31.
——— 1994. “The Expansion of Resistance Training in US Higher Education through the Mid-1960s.” Iron Game History 3(4):11–16.
Turner, S. 2001. “What is the Problem with Experts? ” Social studies of science, 31(1), 123-149.
Underwood, John. 1962. “THE KNEE IS NOT FOR BENDING.” Sports Illustrated, vol.16, No.10. p.50.
Vertinsky, P. 2017. “A Question of the Head and the Heart: From Physical Education to Kinesiology in the Gymnasium and the Laboratory.” Kinesiology Review 6(2).
Whorton, James C. 2002. Nature Cures: The History of Alternative Medicine in America. Oxford University Press.
Williams, G. N., Chmielewski, T., Rudolph, K. S., Buchanan, T. S., & Snyder-Mackler, L. 2001. “Dynamic knee stability: current theory and implications for clinicians and scientists. ” Journal of orthopaedic & sports physical therapy,31(10), 546-566.
Windship, George Barker. 1862. “Autobiographical Sketches of a Strength-Seeker.” The Atlantic Monthly 9(50):102–15.
Wynne, Brian. 1992. “Misunderstood misunderstanding: social identities and public uptake of science. ” Public understanding of science 1(3), 281.
Yearley, S. 2004. Making Sense of Science: Understanding the Social Study of Science. Sage.
Zorbas, William S. and PeterV.Karpovich. 1951. “The Effect of Weight Lifting upon the Speed of Muscular Contractions.” Research Quarterly of the American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation 22(2):145–48.
CK企劃，2002，《健身新手十招享ㄕㄡˋ》。台北：金･克莉絲汀國際傳播有限公司。
Elias, Norbert著，王佩莉譯，1998，《文明的進程︰文明的社會起源和心理起源的研究——第一卷‧西方國家世俗上層行為的變化》。北京：生活･讀書･新知三聯書店。
Mulkay, Michael著，蔡振中譯，1991，《科學與知識社會學》。台北：巨流。
National Strength and Conditioning Association著，林貴福等編譯，2017，《肌力與體能訓練第四版》。台北：禾楓書局。
——— 蔡崇濱等譯，2004，《肌力與體能訓練》。台北：藝軒圖書出版社。
Philips, Bill著，齊若璋譯，2000，《為人生健身》。台北：凱信出版事業有限公司。
Rasch, Philip著，蔡崇濱、林正常編著，1977，《重量訓練》。教育部國民運動叢書編輯委員會。
Ratamess, Nicholas著，林嘉志譯，2014，《基礎肌力與體能訓練》。台北：藝軒圖書出版社。
健美女大生，2018，《健身從深蹲開始》。台北：商周出版。
崔誠兆著，彭韻雯譯，2010，《青花魚教練教你打造王字腹肌》。台北：朱雀文化。
張碧芬，2005，《台北塑身男女:社會建構觀點》。台北：東吳大學社會學系碩士論文。
戴東源.，2013，〈孔恩、布洛爾與對稱性原則〉。《科技、醫療與社會》 18:99–152.
方進隆，1992，《運動與健康:減肥健身與疾病的運動處方》。台北：漢文書店。
李一休，2015，《一休陪你一起愛瘦身：5個燃脂動作，甩肉25公斤，線條再升級！》。台北：如何出版社。
林政東，2003，《運動員肌力訓練》。台北：師大書苑有限公司。
江啟一，1968，《重量訓練》。台北：文源書局。
豬詞道夫、淺川正一、石河利寬、松井秀治著，吳萬福、吳文忠譯，1968，《近代運動訓練法》。台北：教育部國民體育委員會。
郭慎，1982，《重量訓練的應用》。台北：健行文化。
陳德容，2003，《健身房中年輕女性身體概念的建構》。台北：國立台灣大學建築與城鄉研究所碩士論文。
陳瑞麟. 2012，〈維根斯坦與科學知識的社會學〉。頁65–103，收錄於黃之棟編，《科技與社會：社會建構論、科學社會學和知識社會學的視角》。台北：群學出版社。
黃筱婷，2003，《尋求/馴囚--健身俱樂部參與者健康與休閒的消費實踐》。花蓮：國立東華大學族群關係與文化研究所。
黃阿文，2018，《最新健美運動詳解第五版》。台北：文景書局。