本論文探討新竹縣海陸客語齒擦音（dental，音標為<s>）與齒齦後擦音（postalveolar，音標為<sh>）的聲學與構音特徵。所使用的聲學參數包含頻譜動差（頻譜重心、頻譜重心的標準差、偏度、峰度）與共振峰過渡特性（第二共振峰的起始值、軌跡方程式（locus equations）。混合線性模型的結果顯示頻譜動差、第二共振峰的起始值、軌跡方程式的截距可有效區分齒音與齒齦後音的發音位置。超音波結果顯示齒音的舌形特徵為抬起的舌尖、在正中矢狀面及冠狀切面的舌葉有溝紋（grooving）；而齒齦後音的舌形特徵則有向下的舌尖、在正中矢狀面有拱起的舌葉、在冠狀切面有溝紋。根據舌尖與舌葉的特徵，海陸語的清擦音/ʃ/（<sh>）應為齒齦後音，而不是「捲舌音」。而電磁構音儀的結果顯示齒齦後擦音有顯著的圓唇，我們認為此有助於增強齒音與齒齦後音在感知上的對立。因此，我們建議<sh>應記為成圓唇化的齒齦後擦音/ʃʷ/。本論文首度透過語音實驗技術，對海陸客語的兩個擦音（<s, sh>）的構音及聲學特徵進行描寫，除了有助於保存海陸客語的語音特色，也對日後客語教育有一定的貢獻。

The present study investigates the acoustic and articulatory features of the dental and postalveolar sibilants in Hailu Hakka, a variety of Hakka mainly spoken in Hsinchu and Taoyuan, Taiwan. The acoustic properties under study include spectral moments (center of gravity, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis) and formant transitions (F2 onset value and locus equations). Results of linear mixed-effect models showed that the four spectral moments, F2 onset values and locus equations (y-intercept) serve to distinguish the dental from the postalveolar sibilants. The ultrasound data revealed that the dental sibilants typically have a raised tongue tip, and a grooving tongue shape on both the midsagittal and coronal planes; the postalveolar ones display a downward tongue tip, a bunched tongue blade on the midsagittal plane, and a wide pit on the coronal plane. Based on the tongue tip and blade features, /ʃ/ is a postalveolar fricative rather than a “retroflex” sound. In addition, EMA (Electromagnetic Articulography) results indicated significant lip protrusion is attested for the postalveolar sibilants, enhancing the contrast between /s/ and /ʃ/. Therefore, it is suggested that /ʃ/ be transcribed as /ʃʷ/, a labialized postalveolar sibilant. In sum, the experimental results reported in this study will be of value to both linguistic documentation and language education of Hakka.

Abstract I
摘要 II
Acknowledgements III
Table of Contents IV
List of Figures VI
List of Tables VIII
CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Sibilants in Hailu Hakka 1
1.2 Background about Hailu Hakka 2
1.3 Perceptual distinctiveness for sibilants 3
1.4 Acoustic parameters 5
1.4.1 Spectral moments 5
1.4.2 Formant transitions 8
1.5 Articulation of sibilants 9
1.6 Summary 11
CHAPTER 2 Method 13
2.1 Participants 13
2.2 Stimuli 14
2.3 Ultrasound experiment 15
2.4 EMA experiment 17
2.4 Data Analysis 19
2.4.1 Acoustics 19
2.4.2 Ultrasound 20
2.4.3 EMA 21
CHAPTER 3 Acoustic Results 24
3.1 Spectral moments 24
3.2 Formant transitions 31
3.2.1 F2 onset values 31
3.2.2 Locus equations 32
CHAPTER 4 Articulatory Results 35
4.1 Lingual data 35
4.2 Lip protrusion 49
CHAPTER 5 Discussion 53
5.1 Acoustics 53
5.2 Articulatory experiments 57
CHAPTER 6 Conclusion 60
References 61

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