本研究探討臺灣閩南語(以下簡稱為「臺語」)「加」(ke1)的不同用法。 前人文獻談論臺語的比較句用法時都曾或多或少觸及「加」字，不過鮮有專著討 論。本研究以日治時期《語苑》的資料為主，並輔以現代的其他口語文獻，如《閩 南語故事集》等等，自以上文獻廣收「加」(ke1)的語料，研究發現，「加」基 本上對應華語的「多」，且其用法可以分為以下二類。第一類是與數量相關 (quantity-related)的功能，第二類是與程度相關(degree-related)的功能。除此 之外，本研究也探討了「加」的其他相關面向，以下將分別細述之。
其一，「加」作為副詞的主要功能第一類為與量相關的結構。本研究部分採 用 Li (2015)的分析，認為臺語中具有與 Li 所討論的華語結構(Differential Verbal Comparatives)。這一類的結構多具有量的特徵，「加」所引導的結構中 通常必須出現一個顯性的度量詞組(measure phrase)來修飾其後的動詞組或指定 詞組(DP)。
「加」作為副詞的第二類用法為與程度相關的用法。本研究採用 Kennedy (1997、2007)等對程度形容詞的分類，在「加」所引導的結構中，必須包含一 個顯性的程度結構(degree structure)，通常是一個度量詞組或形容詞組(AdjP)。 此外，「加」也可引導一個等級程度謂語(gradable predicate)，此程度謂語由程 度副詞「真」(tsin1)、「誠」(tsiann5)、「足」(tsiok4)或者比較詞素「較」 khah4 引導的，以「ke1+ Deg + AdjP/VP」的形式出現。
除了此兩類結構之外，本研究亦探討「加」的其他相關面向。首先，「加」 尚有一較難分析的結構為表達「白白」、「徒勞」，比如「加麻煩」(徒增麻煩)。 其次，本研究也比較了「加」與「閣」(koh4)，並證明兩者在語意及使用環境 均有不同，其次也比較了「加」的文白異讀(ka1)讀音的差別，以及「加減」(ke1 -kiam2)等等用詞的分析。綜合上述，本研究具體而微地整理了副詞「加」字相 關的各種結構，並對其主要的功能進行了語法與語義上的探討。

This study aims to investigate the syntax and semantics of the multifunctional Taiwanese Southern Min (hereafter TSM) verb/adverb 加 ke1, which comprises two
major functions.
The first function of ke1 (or ke1 (I)) is quantity-related. The research follows Li
(2015)’s proposal on Mandarin 多 duo1, and consider ke1 to be one of its counterpart
in TSM. It can precede either a VP, a DP, or a predicate that denotes the difference of quantity or degree between two different sets. In this function, either the VP or DP must be quantity-related; in other words, the explicit quantity is obligatory, or ke1 is not felicitous in the structure.
The second function of ke1 is degree-related. In this structure, ke1 selects a scalar structure but not a bare adjective. Compared with the first function, the common feature of the two functions is that an extra component, either the quantity or the degree structure, cannot be eliminated. Other than the two main functions, ke1 also has a pragmatic function that means ‘in vain’ or ‘unneeded,’ which is a result of semantic broadening, based on our conclusion.
The research also deals with other dimensions of ke1. For the semantics of ke1, we compare it with koh4 ‘even/again’. Despite many similarities, they still differ in their fundamental semantic meaning: ke1 intensifies the ‘addition’, while koh4 only suggests the ‘repetition’. With respect to ke1’s diachronic development, the second function, the degree-related one, develops many constructions during the past centuries. In other words, the trajectory is from ‘ke1 + Adj + MeaP’ to ‘ke1+ degree adverb + Adj.’
To sum up, the research proposes that ke1 has two main functions, the quantity- related one and the degree-related one. A DMP or a degree phrase is obligatory in the above constructions respectively. Second, even though ke1 corresponds to Mandarin duo1 in the adverbial/verbal function, TSM ke1 has developed much more different functions than its Mandarin near-counterpart. The research provides not only abundant data for the studies on Southern Min but also research questions for future research.

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background and Research Motivation 1
1.2 Research Objectives and data collection 3
1.3 Thesis Organization 3
Chapter 2 Literature Review 5
2.1 Studies on TSM adverb 5
2.2 Degree and gradable adjectives 5
2.3 Previous studies related to ke1 6
2.3.1 Li (1994) 7
2.3.2 Cheng (2000) 8
2.3.3 Lu (2003) 9
2.3.4 Chang (2012) 9
2.3.5 Su (2011) 10
2.3.6 Lu (2014) 11
2.4 Previous Studies of ke1-like constructions in Mandarin 16
2.4.1 Li (2015): the differential verbal comparatives (DVC) 16
2.4.2 Lin (2014): the post-adjectival duo1 17
2.4.3 Liu (2018): the DS comparatives 17
2.4.4 Chang (2015) 17
2.5 Comparison between TSM ke1 and other TSM or Mandarin words 18
2.5.1 Lu (2014): geng4/hai2 vs ke1 18
2.5.2 Wang (2016): geng4 18
2.5.3 Yang (2017) 19
2.5.4 Lin (2016) 19
2.6 Some other relevant issues 21
2.6.1 Comparison between ke1 and kiam2 21
2.6.2 Comparison between ke1 and tse7 21
2.7 Summary 22
Chapter 3 ke1 in quantity-related constructions 23
3.1 Introduction: the quantity function and the degree function of ke1 23
3.2 ke1 with DP 25
3.3 Ke1 with VPs 27
3.3.1 Basic structures 27
3.3.2 The relation between ke1 and the aktionsarts of verbs 31
3.3.3 Different ‘quantity’ of VPs 36
3.3.4 Different positions and components of ke1 40
3.3.5 Ke1 without the explicit quantity 43
3.3.6 Other possibilities: related to the imperative mood or not? 44
3.3.7 The reduplicated function of ke1: ke1 V/DP ke1 AP 47
3.4 Summary 48
Chapter 4 Ke1 in degree constructions 49
4.1 Basic description of the structure: ke1 + khah4 +gradable predicate 49
4.2 Ke1 + gradable predicate: without the comparative morpheme 54
4.3 Ke1 + Deg + AdjP/VP 56
4.3.1 Introduction of the structure 56
4.3.2 The degree adverbs 57
4.4 Various adjectives/verbs that can follow ke1 in the scalar structure 59
4.5 Ke1 means ‘in vain’: ke1 + Adj + (e5) 61
4.6 Summary 63
Chapter 5 Other Related Dimensions of Ke1 64
5.1 Diachronic comparison between ke1 and koh4 64
5.1.1 ke1 in the comparative construction: a comparison with koh4 64
5.1.2 Koh4 involved in the imperative construction 68
5.1.3 ke1 + DEG + Adj construction 69
5.2 TSM ke1kiam2 vs Mandarin duo1shao3 71
5.3 Ke1 in early Southern Min and its later development 73
5.3.1 The post-verbal ke1 in earlier Southern Min playscripts 73
5.3.2 New structures emerged in later literature: ke1+ gradable predicate + DMP 75
5.3.3 New structures in later literature: ke1+V/adj+ (e5) 77
5.4 Summary: Comparison between ke1 and other related words 78
Chapter 6 Conclusion 83
6.1 Summary 83
6.2 Major contributions of the research 84
6.3 Directions for future research 85
References 86
Appendix: Sources of linguistic data (folktales and TV series) 90

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