吸收式循環不僅被提用於冷卻，也被提用於發電，例如利用水氨混合液當工作流體的Kalina循環。這些吸收式能源循環（APC）的優點之一是，多重組合的混合工作流體可以藉由相變時的溫度變化（溫度滑落）在熱交換器中提供較低熵的產生(entropy production)，從而達到比恆溫相變的熱力循環擁有更高的效率。然而，除了水-氨之外，其他工作流體的使用已被主流研究所忽視。具體來說，本工作提出使用水鹽溶液，如吸收式製冷機中的溴化鋰(LiBr)。
基於夾點分析的綜合理論調查顯示，鹽APC在低溫應用中（低於120°C）的最大好處，主要是餘熱回收（WHR）。將朗肯循環、水-氨APC及有機朗肯循環（ORC）進行了比較，有一系列的工作液體和配置（蓄熱、亞/跨臨界）。 APC的第二種應用被研究為聯合動力和冷卻系統，其中鹽溶液可以帶來對一些水氨系統的簡化。對於給定的低溫系統，在相同的配置和帶有蒸汽壓縮冷卻器的基準ORC下，它再次優於水-氨。該分析包括用於熱排斥的寄生負載，如風扇和泵。在低溫系統中，這些負載的額定功率與膨脹機的輸出功率相似。在這項工作中探討的配置故意相當簡單，以便它們在技術上是可行的。鹽基APC還具有環境效益，因為工作液體中使用的鹽是無毒的。
根據文獻回顧，還沒有關於鹽溶液APC運行的報導。因此，這項工作也開始了一項實驗任務，以驗證技術可行性。世界上第一個溴化鋰(LiBr)溶液APC概念驗證裝置已被設計和建造，其額定熱輸入20千瓦，功率輸出低於千瓦。實驗工作指出了設計中與理論模型假設有關的具體方面。測量了相變過程中的溫度滑移，它在解吸器（蒸汽發生器）中明顯低於理論值。在吸收器中，需要對溶液進行明顯的過冷處理，吸收率比預測的要低。另一方面，解吸器的傳熱比預測的要高，由於沸點升高，從溶液中分離出來的蒸汽自然過熱。
然後，實驗工作的具體部分集中在渦輪擴張器的開發上。由於蒸汽在APC中處於低壓狀態（真空，通常在渦輪機入口處為幾十千帕），體積流量大，渦輪機是合適的膨脹機選擇。低溫進一步建議使用聚合物材料和增材製造。與作為發電機的永磁電機一起，這個概念被提出，並被證明是小型渦輪膨脹機的一個成本效益的解決方案。首先，開發和測試了幾種配置的空氣渦輪機。隨後，一個由尼龍製成的轉子和定子流動部件的渦輪機被用於APC單元。它作為一個概念驗證系統，而進一步的工程開發可以提高APC或聯合動力和冷卻系統的應用性能。
在整個工作中，確實強調了設計系統簡單性的必要性。稍微好一點的理論性能往往不值得增加複雜性。總體結果概述了LiBr APC在餘熱回收方面的實際應用可能性（相當有限）。然而，擬議的聯合動力和冷卻系統可以在很大程度上幫助LiBr冷風機的普及，為它們提供更好的容量係數，利用目前不經濟的低溫熱量，並節省初級資源。

Absorption cycles have been proposed not only for cooling but also for power generation, such as well-known Kalina cycle utilizing water-ammonia mixture working fluid. Among advantages of this these absorption power cycles (APC) is that the multicomponent mixture working fluid can provide low exergy destruction in heat exchangers through variable temperature during phase change (temperature glide), thus achieve higher efficiency than thermodynamic cycles with constant temperature phase change. Use of other working fluids than water-ammonia has however stood aside of mainstream research. Specifically, using aqueous salt solutions, such as LiBr found in absorption chillers, is proposed in this work.
A comprehensive theoretical investigation based on pinch point analysis has shown the largest benefits of salt APC in low temperature applications (below about 120°C), mainly for waste heat recovery (WHR). The comparison has been performed with a steam Rankine cycle, a water-ammonia APC, and organic Rankine cycles (ORC) with a range of working fluids and configurations (recuperation, sub/trans-critical). Second application of APC was investigated as a combined power and cooling system, where salt solutions can bring a simplification against some water ammonia systems. For given low temperature system, again, it outperforms water-ammonia under same configuration and benchmark ORC with vapour compression chiller. The analyses include a parasitic load for heat rejection such as fans and pumps. These can have a similar power rating as the expander output at low temperature systems. Configurations explored in this work are purposefully rather simple, so that they are technically feasible. The salt-based APCs also carry environmental benefits, as the salts utilized in the working fluids are non-toxic.
According to the literature review, operation of no salt solution APC has ever been reported. Therefore, this work embarks also on an experimental task to validate technical feasibility. World’s first LiBr solution APC proof-of-concept unit has been designed and built with 20 kW nominal thermal input and sub-kW power output. The experimental works point out at specific aspects of the design with respect to the theoretical models’ assumptions. Temperature glide during phase change has been measured and it is in desorber (vapour generator) significantly lower, than theoretical one. In the absorber, significant subcooling of the solution is required and absorption rate is lower than predicted. On the other hand, desorber heat transfer is higher than predicted and steam separated from the solution is naturally superheated due to boiling point elevation.
Specific part of the experimental work is then focused on turboexpander development. As the vapour is at low pressure in the APC (vacuum, typically several to dozens kPa at turbine inlet) with high volumetric flowrate, turbines are the suitable expander choice. Low temperatures further suggested use of polymer materials and additive manufacturing. Together with permanent magnet motor as a generator, this concept was proposed and shown as a cost effective solution for small turboexpanders. First, several configurations of air turbines were developed and tested. Following, a turbine with rotor and stator flow components made of nylon by powder bed fusion has been used for the APC unit. It serves as a proof of concept system, while further engineering development can improve the performance for applications in APC or combined power and cooling systems.
Need for simplicity of designed system is indeed stressed throughout the work. Slightly better theoretical performance is often practically not worth of added complexity. The overall results outline possibilities of (rather limited) actual applicability of the LiBr APC for waste heat recovery. Proposed combined power and cooling system can, however, largely help for the widespread of LiBr chillers, provide for them better capacity factor, utilize currently uneconomical low temperature heat and save primary resources.

Contents
Abstract (Chinese) I
Abstract III
Acknowledgements V
Contents VIII
List of Figures XIV
List of Tables XXV
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Current energy engineering and author’s research . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Thesis structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Low temperature waste heat recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Absorption power cycles 9
2.1 Absorption power cycle concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Review of APC with various working fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1 Water-ammonia absorption power cycles . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.2 Salt-water absorption power cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.3 Other absorption power cycles working fluids . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 Review of absorption power and cooling combined cycles . . . . . . 17
2.3.1 Separate thermodynamic cycles coupled by heat . . . . . . . 18
2.3.2 Separate thermodynamic cycles coupled by work . . . . . . . 20
2.3.3 Single-branch Thermodynamic Cycle for Both Power and Thermally Activated Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.4 Branched Thermodynamic Cycle for Power or Thermally Activated Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.5 Prospects For for Aqueous Salt Solution Systems . . . . . . 24
2.4 Working fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.1 Water-ammonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4.2 Water-salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4.3 Ionic liquids – refrigerants, alcohol mixtures and other . . . 29
2.5 Experimental and commercial APC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6 Summary of the APC review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3 Review of prospective components design 39
3.1 Absorber / Desorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.1.1 Falling Film Absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.1.2 Adiabatic Absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.1.3 Bubble Absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.1.4 Flat plate desorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.1.5 Membrane absorber and desorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2 Separator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.3 Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4 Review of micro-expanders and additive manufacturing technologies 50
4.1 Expander type consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.2 Additive manufacturing methods for turbomachinery . . . . . . . . 53
4.2.1 Stereolithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.2.2 Fused Deposition Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2.3 Selective Laser Sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.2.4 Direct Metal Laser Sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.2.5 Post-processing of AM components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5 Goals of the thesis 61
6 Theoretical cycle investigations 64
6.1 Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.1.1 Cycle configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.1.2 Thermodynamic models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.1.3 Calculation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.1.4 General input parameters and boundary conditions . . . . . 74
6.1.5 Additional models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.2 Performance indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.3 Power cycle results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.3.1 Thermodynamic limits and ideal cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.3.2 Comparison with previous works and model validation . . . 88
6.3.3 Detailed parameters of the cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.3.4 Heat source utilization general analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.3.5 Comparison with other APC, ORC zeotropic fluids and transcritical ORC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.3.6 APC performance sensitivity analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.3.7 Case study 1 - low temperature solar system . . . . . . . . . 105
6.3.8 Case study 2 – bottoming cycle to ORC . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.3.9 Case study 3 – waste heat utilization in CCS systems . . . . 114
6.3.10 Discussion and summary and of the power cycle theoretical investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.4 Combined absorption power and cooling cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.4.1 Baseline APCC and comparison with VCC-ORC . . . . . . . 121
6.4.2 Sensitivity analysis of APCC and ORC-VCC cycle parameters122
6.4.3 Sensitivity analysis of utilization parameters . . . . . . . . . 125
6.4.4 Comparison of working fluids for APCC . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.4.5 Comparison of APCC with APC for waste heat recovery . . 129
6.4.6 Summary of combined power and cooling cycle . . . . . . . . 131
7 Experimental development of the absorption power system 133
7.1 Configuration and design of the 1st testrig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.1.1 Overall concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.1.2 Design of components and resulting system . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.2 Configuration and design of the proof of concept APC unit (2nd testrig) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.2.1 Overall concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.2.2 Design of components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.2.3 Resulting system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.3 Commissioning and operation of the experimental rigs . . . . . . . . 152
7.3.1 1st testrig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.3.2 2nd testrig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.4 Data Evaluation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.4.1 Working fluid mass flow rate issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.4.2 Cycle parameters and potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.4.3 Uncertainty analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.5 Experimental Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.5.1 Cycle parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.5.2 Temperature glide measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.5.3 Comparison with the design models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.6 Summary of APC experimental development . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
8 Experimental development of expanders 172
8.1 Turboexpander concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
8.2 Turbine design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
8.2.1 Axial air turbines’ design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
8.2.2 Radial cantilever air expander design . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
8.2.3 APC expander design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.3 Testing and evaluation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.3.1 Air expander test-rigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
8.3.2 APC turbine test-rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.3.3 Data processing and performance evaluation . . . . . . . . . 189
8.4 Expander performance results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8.4.1 Axial air expanders results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.4.2 Radial cantilever expander results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
8.4.3 APC demonstrator expander results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8.5 Summary of turbo-expander development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
9 Conclusion 202
Bibliography 211
Author’s publications related to the thesis 244
Nomenclature 248
A Details of numerical APC heat exchangers calculation 257
B Solar and collector models and their coupling to cycle models 259
B.1 Solar model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
B.2 Collector model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
B.3 Collector efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
B.4 Models interconnection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
C Detailed results of APC comparison with alternatives to low temperature heat source 265
D Detailed results of APCC and its benchmark systems 272
E APC 1st test rig design details 278
F APC proof of concept unit (2nd testrig) design details 283
G Experimental APC results – charts with full uncertainty error bars 287
H Axial turbine design 294
H.1 Axial air turbine model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
H.2 Sensitivity analysis of axial air turbine parameters . . . . . . . . . . 298
H.3 Alternative correlations used in APC turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
I Isentropic efficiency evaluation method for air turbines 300

Author's
[VN1] V. Novotny, M. Kolovratnik, Absorption power cycles for lowtemperature heat sources using aqueous salt solutions as working fluids, International Journal of Energy Research 41 (7) (2017) 952-975. doi: 10.1002/er.3671.
[VN2] V. Novotny, M. Vitvarova, M. Kolovratnik, Absorption power cycles with various working fluids for exergy-efficient low-temperature waste heat recovery, in: S. Nižetić, A. Papadopoulos (Eds.), The Role of Exergy in Energy and the Environment, Springer, Cham, 2018, Ch. Energy Sys, pp. 99-111. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-89845-2_8.
[VN3] V. Novotny, V. Vodicka, J. Mascuch, M. Kolovratnik, Possibilities of water-lithium bromide absorption power cycles for low temperature, low power and combined power and cooling systems, Energy Procedia 129 (September) (2017) 818-825. doi:10.1016/ J.EGYPRO.2017.09.104.
[VN4] V. Novotny, M. Vitvarova, M. Kolovratnik, Z. Hrdina, Minimizing the Energy and Economic Penalty of CCS Power Plants Through Waste Heat Recovery Systems, Energy Procedia 108 (2017) 10-17. doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2016.12.184.
[VN5] V. Novotny, D. Szucs, M. Kolovratnik, T. Matuska, Simulation of absorption power cycle and organic Rankine cycle using evacuated tube solar collectors., IIR Rankine Conference 2020. 2020-July (2020) 600-607. doi:10.18462/IIR.RANKINE. 2020.1227.
[VN6] V. Novotny, D. J. Szucs, J. Špale, H.-Y. Tsai, M. Kolovratnik, Absorption Power and Cooling Combined Cycle with an Aqueous Salt Solution as a Working Fluid and a Technically Feasible Configuration, Energies 2021, Vol. 14, Page 3715 14 (12) (2021) 3715 . doi: 10.3390 / EN 14123715 .
[VN7] V. Novotny, D. Szűcs, M. Kolovratnik, T. Matuska, Simulation of solar collectors with two low temperature heat engines for buildings applications, in: 10th International Conference on System Simulation in Buildings, University of Liege, Liege, 2018 .
[VN8] V. Novotný, M. Vitvarová, J. P. Jakobsen, M. Kolovratník, Analysis and Design of Novel Absorption Power Cycle Plants, in: ASME 2016 10th International Conference on Energy Sustainability, ES 2016, collocated with the ASME 2016 Power Conference and the ASME 2016 14th International Conference on Fuel Cell Science, Engineering and Technology, Vol. 1, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, ASME, Charlotte, 2016, p. V001T13A005, doi:10.1115/ES2016-59272.
[VN9] V. Novotny, J. Mascuch, H.-Y. Tsai, M. Kolovratnik, Design of Experimental Rig for Validation of Absorption Power Cycle Concept, Energy Procedia 105 (2017) 4990-4996. doi: 10.1016/j jegypro.2017.03.998.
[VN10] V. Novotny, D. Suchna, M. Kolovratnik, Experimental rig for LiBrwater absorption power cycle - Design and first experimental results, in: AIP Conference Proceedings, Vol. 2047, 2018, p. 020013. doi: 10.1063 / 1.5081646 .
[VN11] V. Novotný, D. J. Szucs, J. Spale, V. Vodicka, J. Mascuch, M. Kolovratník, Absorption power cycle with LiBr solution working fluid-design of the proof-of-concept unit, in: 5 th International Seminar on ORC Power Systems, Athens, 2019 .URL https://www.orc2019.com/online/proceedings/documents/ 61.pdf
[VN12] J. Spale, V. Novotny, V. Mares, A. P. Weiß, 3D printed radial impulse cantilever micro-turboexpander for preliminary air testing, in: AIP Conference Proceedings, Vol. 2323, AIP Publishing LLC AIP Publishing, Pilsen, Czechia, 2021, p. 070002. doi:10.1063/ 5.0041433 .
[VN13] V. Novotny, J. Spale, D. Suchna, J. Pavlicko, M. Kolovratnik, A. P. Weiß, Absorption power cycle with a. 3D-printed plastic micro turboexpander - Considerations, design and first experimental results, in: AIP Conference Proceedings, Vol. 2323, American Institute of Physics Inc., 2021, p. 070003. doi: 10.1063/5.0041429.
[VN14] V. Novotny, J. Spale, J. Pavlicko, M. Kolovratnik, Experimental investigation of a kw scale absorption power cycle with libr solution, in: T. U. of Munich (Ed.), Proceedings of the 6th International Seminar on ORC Power Systems, Technical University of Munich, Technical University of Munich, 2021. doi: 10.14459/2021mp1632900.
[VN15] V. Novotny, J. Spale, J. Pavlicko, J. Novotny, D. J. Szucs, M. Kolovratnik, Experience from the operation of an absorption power cycle with LiBr working fluid and its prospects for future, in: Heat Powered Cycles 2021, Bilbao, Spain, 2022, p. (accepted manuscript).
[VN16] V. Novotny, J. Spale, B. B. Stunova, M. Kolovratnik, M. Vitvarova, P. Zikmund, 3D Printing in Turbomachinery: Overview of Technologies, Applications and Possibilities for Industry 4.0, in: ASME Turbo Expo 2019: Turbomachinery Technical Conference and Exposition, Vol. 6, ASME International, Phoenix, 2019, p. V006T24A021. doi:10.1115/gt2019-91849.
[VN17] A. P. Weiß, V. Novotný, T. Popp, P. Streit, J. Špale, G. Zinn, M. Kolovratník, Customized ORC micro turbo-expanders - From 1D design to modular construction kit and prospects of additive manufacturing, Energy 209 (2020) 118407. doi:10.1016/ j.energy.2020.118407.
[VN18] J. Spale, V. Novotny, J. Novotny, A. P. Weiß, M. Kolovratnik, Experimental Development of Additively Manufactured Turboexpanders towards an Application in the ORC, in: Heat Powered Cycles 2021, Bilbao, Spain, 2022, p. (accepted manuscrit).
[VN19] V. Novotny, M. Vitvarova, M. Kolovratnik, B. B. Stunova, V. Vodicka, J. Spale, P. Zikmund, M. Drasnar, E. Schastlivtseva, Design and Manufacturing of a Metal 3D Printed \mathrm{kW} Scale Axial Turboexpander, in: ASME Turbo Expo 2019: Turbomachinery Technical Conference and Exposition, Vol. 8, ASME International, Phoenix, 2019 , p. V008T26A023. doi:10.1115/gt2019-91822.

Other:
[1] M. Son, V. Novotny, H. Choi, Thin-film nanocomposite membrane with vertically embedded carbon nanotube for forward osmosis, Desalination and Water Treatment 57 (55) (2016) 26670-26679. doi:10.1080/ 19443994.2016.1190110.
[2] V. Novotný, J. Maščuch, Model of small family house with micro cogeneration unit, Vytapeni, Vetrani, Instalace 25 (1) (2016).
[3] J. Mascuch, V. Novotny, M. Tobias, Economic aspects of micro-cogeneration systems - Insight into investors' approaches, in: 2018 Smart City Symposium Prague (SCSP), IEEE, Prague, 2018, pp. 1-5. doi:10.1109/ SCSP. 2018.8402654.
[4] J. Mascuch, V. Novotny, V. Vodicka, Z. Zeleny, Towards development of 1-10 \mathrm{~kW} pilot ORC units operating with hexamethyldisiloxane and using rotary vane expander, Energy Procedia 129 (2017) 826-833. doi: 10.1016 / j.egypro.2017.09.196.
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