幾十年來，「認同」研究以及「區域」研究一直成為學術界不同版本人類學的重要議題。然而，對這兩個議題文獻的批判性與探討程度一直有限，且缺乏解釋社會現實的敏銳性，並無法促進民族誌驅動的理論和詮釋。
因此，在本論文中，我的三個目標為: 1) 分析英語、俄語及在較小程度上中文文獻中「認同」研究和「區域」研究各種理論方法的共同點和差異；2) 提供後蘇聯阿爾泰共和國（俄羅斯聯邦）原住民文化復振的歷史和民族誌記錄；3) 去神聖化的「認同」概念，且證明在後蘇聯時期的俄羅斯，阿爾泰原住民的自我認同，既不是獨自天生或單獨建構出來的社會現象，而是複雜的「動態認同歷史軌跡」現象。
因此我試圖將後蘇聯時期阿爾泰認同轉變的自我分類，視爲一種動態的阿爾泰意識 (Altainess)，而非僵化的民族認同。這也就是說阿爾泰意識 (Altainess) 做為一種集體性想象的認同刻板化過程。但它既非單獨建構，亦非天然生成。相反的它應該被看待為一種歷代發展的過程。本論文所提出的民族誌和歷史數據證明這個認同過程的形成有多種形式，可以歸納爲兩個主要的敘事方式: (1) 人們對過去蘇聯時代集體農場制度的記憶與懷念，以及 (2) 人們對於前俄羅斯帝國時期的懷舊之情，包含對於當時傳統阿爾泰社會結構、宗教慶典、歷史等等，以及與現代生態學脈絡裡的自然保護及自然崇拜。除此之外我在本論文裡也證明了阿爾泰共和國的這種歷史與文化建構是當地社會、考古學家和國家機構之間的互動形式而產生的，並透過社會媒體和民俗旅遊進行引導的社會現象。

Identity and area have been significant topics in different versions of anthropology across ideological and geographical boundaries for decades. However, a critical assessment of theoretical literature on these topics is self-limited in its imposition of a priori assumptions rather than promoting ethnographically driven theorical and interpretative innovation.
Therefore, this dissertation pursues the following three objectives: 1) to analyze the commonalities and differences between diverse theoretical approaches toward identity studies and area studies in the English, Russian (and to a less extent, Chinese) literatures; 2) to provide historical and ethnographic descriptions of post-Soviet indigenous Altaian revivalism in the Altai Republic (Russian Federation); 3) to desacralize the theoretical concept of identity and showing that instead of a broadly defined set of common given features strung together on a presumed core (essentialist theories) or inter-group commonalities artificially constructed on purpose (constructivist theories) in post-Soviet Russia, indigenous identity has to be approached neither as simply innate nor constructed social facts, rather they should be approached as complex “dynamic historical trajectories” in which agents of any identity constructivism exists only as a subset or subordinate component. In doing so, I attempt to label post-Soviet revived Altaian indigenous self-classifications as a dynamic Altainess instead of a hard term “identity,” meaning a chain of imaginary homogenizations of collective groupness that can viewed neither as given nor constructed, and rather should be approached as diachronically unfolding processes. The ethnographic and historical data I present in this dissertation suggests that these processes take diverse forms that coalesce around two metanarratives: (1) memories about the Soviet past embodied in a form of collective farms, and (2) nostalgia for the imagined pre-Soviet past embodied in reviving the pre-colonial social structure, religious celebrations, imaginaries of historical continuities between modern indigenous Altaians and their predecessor of the bygone eras, as well as in worshipping nature, which coexists with the modern ecologist-development context of nature preservation. I also show that such historical processes in the Altai Republic as a result of interactions between local people, archeologists, and state institutions as channeled through social media, and ethnic tourism.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT.......................................................i
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................v
TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................xiv
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, MAPS, AND TABLES....................xviii
TRANSLITERATION...............................................xx
INDEX OF NON ENGLISH TERMS..................................xxii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION...................................................1
1.1 Research questions......................................................1
1.2 Chapter summaries......................................................3
1.3 Definitions: from Greater Altai to the Altai Republic......................................................12
1.3.1 Geography.....................................................12
1.3.2 Field-site..........................................................18
1.3.2.1 The Altai Republic......................................................18
1.3.2.2 Gorno-Altaisk city..........................................................27
1.3.2.3 The Chuya Road..........................................................29
1.3.2.4 Kosh-Agach district......................................................32
1.3.3 Methodology...................................................38
1.3.4 Fieldwork.....................................................38
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................55
2.1 Introduction: English and Russian language approaches....................................................55
2.2 History of identity problematics in Russian and English language anthropology..................................................58
2.2.1 Primordialism.................................................59
2.2.1.1 Primordialism in English language anthropological literature....................................................59
2.2.1.2 Primordialism in Russian language anthropological literature....................................................63
2.2.2 Constructivism................................................68
2.2.2.1 Constructivism in the English language anthropological literature....................................................68
2.2.2.2 Constructivism in Russian language anthropological literature....................................................73
2.2.3 Instrumentalism...............................................75
2.2.3.1 Instrumentalism in the English language anthropological literature....................................................76
2.2.3.2 Instrumentalism in Russian language anthropological literature....................................................78
2.2.4 Anthropological thought in Russia: a brief overview......................................................82
2.3 Chinese language anthropological literature on identity......................................................86
2.4 Studies of Identity: “West” versus “East”........................................................93
2.5 Area Studies.......................................................97
2.5.1 Origins of the concept.......................................................99
2.5.2 Area studies in the United States.......................................................100
2.5.3 Area studies in Russia.......................................................106
2.5.3.1 Studies of the local lore.........................................................107
2.5.3.2 Regional Studies......................................................110
2.6 “Areas” or “regions?”...................................................113
CHAPTER 3 PRE-SOVIET ALTAINESS....................................................116
3.1 Altaian ethnic identities in the secondary literature...................................................121
3.2 Altai during the pre-Russian era..........................................................124
3.3 Rise of the Russian influence: Altai during the imperial era..........................................................138
3.3.1 Social structure.....................................................140
3.3.2 Altaian ethnic diversity.....................................................145
3.3.3 Russian colonization of Altai.........................................................148
3.4 Altai during the transition period: from the pre-Soviet to the Soviet eras..........................................................163
3.5 Conclusion....................................................170
CHAPTER 4 SOVIET AND POST-SOVIET ALTAINESS.....................................................172
4.1 Altai: Soviet era.........................................173
4.2 Post-Soviet Altainess as the nostalgia for the Soviet era...........................................................182
4.2.1 Land and sedentarization...............................................182
4.2.2 Collective farms.........................................................183
4.3 Post-Soviet Altainess as the nostalgia for the pre-Soviet era...........................................................193
4.3.1 Imagining Altainess through social media.........................................................194
4.4 Ethnic tourism.......................................................206
4.4.1 An ancient Scythian harp: buried sounds........................................................208
4.4.2 Tourism in the Altai Republic......................................................210
4.4.3 Tourism as cultural revivalism in the post-Soviet Altai.........................................................212
4.4.4 Counterbalancing fears and opportunities of ethnic tourism in Altai.........................................................223
4.5 Conclusion....................................................225
CHAPTER 5 ETHNIC INTERACTIONS IN THE 1990s. KAZAKHS AND ALTAIANS......................................................228
5.1 Introduction to the economic context.......................................................229
5.2 Kazakhs: Historical Background....................................................237
5.2.1 Before Russian colonization..................................................237
5.2.2 Russian colonization..................................................241
5.2.3 Post-Soviet era...........................................................247
5.3 Kazakhs in Altai.........................................................250
5.3.1 Telengits.....................................................251
5.3.2 The history of Kazakh-Telengit contact.......................................................256
5.3.3 Telengits and Kazakh in-between the Soviet and the post-Soviet Eras: Broken ties, bitter memories......................................................261
5.4 Conclusion....................................................271
CHAPTER 6 SACRED NATURE VERSUS NATURE PRESERVATION: WHEN DEVELOPMENT AND RELIGION MEET..........................................................276
6.1 Development in an authoritarian political environment...................................................277
6.2 The development of the “anthropology of development”..................................................278
6.2.1 Theories of development...................................................278
6.2.2 Post-developmentalism..............................................282
6.3 Development and nature in Altai:
Sacred nature or environment protection....................................................288
6.3.1 An image of sacred nature in Altaian culture.......................................................290
6.3.2 Visiting sacred springs.......................................................293
6.3.3 Ethnography: A journey to arzhan suu from the village of Kӧkӧru........................................................293
6.3.3.1 A journey to sacred springs: planning and time management....................................................300
6.3.3.2 Structure of the ritual, regulations, and taboos........................................................302
6.3.4 Worshipping sacred springs as “being an Altaian”..........306
6.4 Development: NGOisation and de-NGOisation in the Altai Republic......................................................310
6.4.1 Ukok Plateau: The “Altai” pipeline project and the mummy of the Princess of Altai.........................................................315
6.4.2 Ethnography: patrolling the Ukok Plateau.......................................................320
6.5 Conclusion....................................................335
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION....................................................339
7.1 Identities and areas: beyond buzzwords.....................................................341
7.2 Further research directions....................................................350
ARCHIVAL MATERIALS.....................................................352
BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................................356

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