隨著科技的發展，奈米製程技術變得越來越成熟，奈米結構可以通過無塵室製程實現，這擴大了開發超材料和奈米元件方面的應用。超材料是藉由模擬自然界原子晶格堆疊的人造材料，在特定的頻率下展現出特殊的光學性質。超材料設計的尺寸小於工作頻率並且可以藉由調控人造晶格單元的參數，例如：單元間距，人造結構的尺寸等等，以進一步控制光學響應的頻段。現今，超材料是一個非常熱門的研究主題並且可以實現完美吸收體、負折射系數材料、左手材料等等，為科學的演進帶來極重要的發展。此外，奈米製程技術不僅對光電子元件具有吸引力且對場效電晶體也非成具有吸引力，場效電晶體是用於著名的控制積體電路訊號的元件，並廣泛應用於微電子電路和偵測器。本文闡述了超材料作為透明導電電極和氣體檢測器的兩種應用，以及一個用於抗原檢測的矽奈米線場效電晶體的應用。
第一個研究主題是超材料透明導電電極。光伏元件中最廣泛使用的透明導電電極是銦錫氧化物，因為其具有高透射率（> 80％）和低電阻率（~50 Ω/□）。然而，銦錫氧化物具有其缺點，例如低導電率，低延展性，低出光效率和低成本效益比，這對於光伏元件的發展來說會降低其市場競爭力。因此，我們將電漿頻率的概念應用在金屬上，當工作頻率高於電漿頻率時，金屬是透明的，反之亦然。只要我們設計的等離子體頻率位於略低於可見光範圍的位置，我們就可以在可見光範圍內獲得高度透明的金屬。伴隨著本質上的低電阻率，我們實現了金屬超材料透明導電電極。
第二個研究主題是超材料氣體檢測器。我們提出了超材料等離子體結構的實驗和理論分析，建立電漿子-分子耦合檢測系統。由於提高靈敏度僅在分子位於最增強的場(熱區)附近時才有效，因此將目標分子精確定位在熱區以產生電漿子-分子耦合對於開發檢測技術至關重要。我們設計了一種高深寬比金屬絕緣體金屬結構，其中間隙絕緣層為25 nm，夾在兩個金屬薄膜之間，可以將小分子輸送到此區域，為分子檢測提供了一個超靈敏的平台。該氣體檢測器應用於二氧化碳和丁烷的檢測，並設計為在波數為3952 cm-1和2945 cm-1處表現出共振，其光譜分別與C=O和-CH2的振動模式重疊。通過元件共振與分子鍵結震動等兩種共振模式的相互耦合產生費諾共振。在測量中，可以很清楚地觀察到穿透頻譜內的穿透波谷產生明顯峰值。我們的高深寬比MIM結構可以檢測20 ppm的低濃度，具有較大的信噪比和檢測的單一性。
第三個研究主題是矽奈米線場效電晶體抗原檢測器。該研究介紹了一種提升抗原檢測效率的方法，在抗體固定在生物晶片之前通過外加電場將抗體旋轉到特定角度來提高生物晶片的效率。為了找到外加電場的優化角度，我們採用原子力顯微鏡來測量抗體/抗原複合物的分離力。偵測到最大分離力的角度就是抗體的最佳旋轉方向。另外，矽奈米線場效電晶體通過I-line微影製程製作出線寬為120 nm的矽奈米線。然後將此抗體的最佳旋轉方向應用在矽奈米線場效電晶體上以實現抗原的準確和快速的臨床檢測。在抗原的檢測上，利用矽奈米線場效電晶體檢測了兩種不同的癌症抗原：人結腸腺癌(CEACAM5)和結腸腺癌(CEACAM1)，其可檢測到的抗原最低濃度為18 ng/ml和21.6 ng/ml，與臨床檢測相當。

Under the development of technology, nanoscale fabrication is becoming increasingly mature. Nanoscale structures can be easily realized by clean room fabrication processes, which expand their application for developing metamaterials and nanodevices. Metamaterials are artificial structures that exhibit special optical properties by mimicking natural atomic stacked lattices. The dimension of the metamaterial is less than the working frequency, which can be controlled by fine-tuning parameters of the artificial structure, including lattice spacing, size, and so on. Currently, metamaterials are a very popular research topic, and they are capable of realizing perfect absorbers, negative refractive index media, left-handed materials, etc. In addition, nanoscale fabrication is fascinating not only for optoelectronics but also for field-effect transistors (FETs). The FET is a well-known device for modulating digital signals and is widely applied in microelectronic circuits and sensors. This dissertation expounds two applications of metamaterials as transparent conducting electrodes and gas sensors and one application of silicon nanowire FETs (SiNW-FETs) for antigen detection applications.
The first research topic is metamaterial-based transparent conducting electrodes TCEs. The widely used material of transparent conducting electrodes in optoelectronic devices is indium tin oxide (ITO), which possesses high transmittance (>80%) and low resistivity (~50 Ω/). The ITO, however, has drawbacks, such as low conductivity, low ductility, low out-coupling efficiency, and a low CP value for scarce indium, and the material is not a competitive solution for optoelectronic devices in the future. As a consequence, we utilize the concept of plasma frequency, that is, when the frequency is higher than the plasma frequency, the metal is transparent, and vice versa. As long as we design a plasma frequency that is slightly lower than the frequency of the visible regime, we obtain metals that are highly transparent within the visible region. Owing to the intrinsically low resistivity of metal, we achieve a metamaterial transparent conducting electrode with 86.38% transmittance and 14.51 Ω/□ sheet resistance.
The second research topic is metamaterial gas sensors. We present an experimental and theoretical study of metamaterial-based plasmonic structures to build a plasmonic-molecular coupling detection system. Because improving the sensitivity is only effective when molecules are located in the vicinity of the most enhanced field (hot-spot region), locating target molecules exactly in the hot-spot region to create plasmonic-molecular coupling is crucial to developing sensing technology. We designed a high aspect ratio metal insulator metal (MIM) structure with a nanoscale gap of 25 nm sandwiched between two metal films, which enables the delivery of small molecules into hot-spot regions and offers an ultrasensitive platform for molecular sensing. This metamaterial is applied in the detection of CO2 and C4H10 and is designed to exhibit resonances at 3952 cm−1 and 2945 cm-1, exhibiting spectral overlap with the C=O and –CH2 vibrational modes, respectively. Fano resonance is therefore generated by the mutual coupling of the two resonance modes. In the measurement, a distinct peak within a transmission dip is clearly observed. Our high aspect ratio MIM structure can detect a low concentration of 20 ppm butane with a high sensitivity of 2.92×〖10〗^(-4) ppm-1 and high selectivity.
The third research topic is the silicon nanowire field-effect transistors (SiNW-FETs) biosensor. This study introduces a promising idea to enhance the efficiency of a biochip via orienting antibodies to a certain angle by an eternal electric field (EEF) before the antibodies are immobilized on the biochip. To determine the optimized applied angle of the EEF, we employ atomic force microscopy (AFM) to measure the binding forces of antibody/antigen complexes. The greatest binding force suggests the optimal orientation of the antibodies. In addition, the SiNW-FET was achieved via I-line lithography processes, with a feature size of 120 nm. Such reorientation of proteins was then implemented on SiNW-FETs for robust and rapid clinical detection. To further demonstrate its detection ability, two different cancer markers, i.e., CEACAM5 and CEACAM1, are tested by the SiNW-FET, and their detection limits are approximately 18 ng/ml and 21.6 ng/ml, respectively, which are comparable those of with commercial clinical detection approaches.

摘要 I
Abstract III
致謝 VI
Content VII
List of figures IX
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction to metamaterials 1
1.2 Introduction to sensors 4
1.3 Dissertation Organization 6
Chapter 2 Literature review 8
2.1 Transparent conducting electrodes (TCEs) 8
2.2 Plasmonic sensors 17
2.3 Protein detection 26
Chapter 3 Methods 33
3.1 Metamaterial based TCE 33
3.1.1 Fabrication process 33
3.1.2 FDTD simulation 35
3.1.3 Refractive index calculation 35
3.1.4 ANOVA method 35
3.2 Metamaterial gas sensor 37
3.2.1 Simulation 37
3.2.2 Fabrication process 38
3.2.3 Measurement 42
3.3 SiNW-FET-based biosensor 42
3.3.1 Protein chip preparation 45
3.3.2 Binding force measurement 48
Chapter 4 Realization and Optimization of High-Performance Transparent Conducting Electrodes (TCEs) by Plasmonic Wires 51
4.1 Introduction and motivation 51
4.2 Structure design of MM-TCE 54
4.3 Simulation, fabrication, measurement results and discussion 56
4.4 Summary 67
Chapter 5 Metamaterial Gas Sensor with a Vertically Configured Metal Insulator Metal (MIM) Structure 69
5.1 Introduction and Motivation 69
5.2 Concept of MIM structure 72
5.3 Structure design of metamaterial gas sensor 73
5.4 Simulation, fabrication, measurement results and discussion 75
5.5 Summary 83
Chapter 6 Disease Antigen Detection by Silicon Nanowires with Efficiency Optimization of Their Antibodies on a Chip 85
6.1 Introduction and motivation 85
6.2 Design of the experiment 88
6.3 Sample preparation & AFM measurement 89
6.3.1 Sample preparation 89
6.3.2 Antibody-Antigen Binding force measurements by AFM 91
6.4 Fabrication and IV characteristics of SiNW-FET bio-sensors 93
6.5 Results and discussion 96
6.5.1 Optimisation of the binding force between antigen and antibody under an EEF. 96
6.5.2 I-V measurement of SiNW-FET bio-sensors. 99
6.6 Summary 104
Chapter 7 Conclusions 106
Chapter 8 Reference 108
Appendix 120

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